ANDERSON'S HISTORICAL SERIES. 

Anderson's Historical Reader, 

Embracing selections in prose and verse, from standard writers in 

Ancient and Modern History ; with a Vocabulary of difficult or unusual 

words, and a Geographical and Biographical Index. By John J. 

Anderson, A.M., Author of a Grammar School United States History, 

a Pictorial School United States History, a Manual of General History, 

a School History of England, etc., etc. 12mo. 544 pages. Price, $l.bO. 

The selections which have been made for this work are such as 

seemed best adapted to excite the imagination of the young student, 

while imparting useful information in reference to noted events and 

personages in the history of various countries, at different periods ; and 

such, also, as appeared appropriate for the purpose of training pupils in 

reading and elocution. Many different kinds of composition, both in 

prose and poetry, are therefore represented, with the greatest possible 

variety of style*; so that, simply as a reading-book, this work will be 

found to possess very great advantages over those generally used in the 

higher classes of schools. 

From Prof. W. T. Harris, Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. {in the Western 
Educational Revieiv.) 
"Ouranthc 
ins of the deta 
gives America 
Pre-cott. Bam 
There are the 
settlements, t 

States.— all pc 

reasonable cor 

" Palt II. t. 
miscellaneous 
and Koine, the 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 5 



J|l 1 n ? .5. 5 "i..lopU"9l'<|f"-- 

# # 

f UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. | 



it in dispos- 
ure. Part I. 
son. Irving, 
1 the poets. 
: North, the 
the United 
id yet with 

II. contains 
ient Greece 



the volume, 
—which are 
L' 'English, 
-ancient and 
i The details 
ical person- 
1 literature, 

) 



"This is a l 
every part of 
chronological! 
Scottish, and I 
modern — are v 
of a multitude 
ages, but also 
and a number 
Frc 

"Mr. Anderson's histories have already received a very wide appreciation ; and when 
we say that in this Reader the author has fully accomplished all that he proposed to him- 
self, we have given it the highest praise Mr. Anderson can desire." 
From tJie New York Tribune. 

"'The Historical Reader' contains a series of selections from the most celebrated 
writers of ancient and modern history, together with illustrative passages from favorite 
British and American poets, forming a reading book for schools on a new plan, and 
showing an unusual degree of literary merit." 

From the Neio York Evening Post. 

11 A work for schools has just been brought out, entitled 'The Historical Reader,' in 
which the compiler, John J. Anderson, A.M., has struck out a plan equally novel and 
Batifcfactory. * * * Obviously the value of such a volume will depend largely upon 
the discrimination exercised by the compiler in the passages chosen ; and herein Mr. 
Anderson has shown a high degree of literary taste and culture." 
Fiom the New York Evening Mail. 

" Mr. Anderson Ins hit upon a thoroughly good idea in adding to his historical man- 
uals 'The Historical Reader. 1 It is likely to accomplish a threefold good, in rendering 
reading exercises especially interesting, inculcating quietly a taste for history, and 
acquainting the younger generation with a class of the best writers of English which is 
none too much known." 

Published by Clark & Maynard, 5 Barclay St., New York. 



AHBEHSGN'S SCHOOL HISTORIES. 



AndeisorTs Manual of General History. 

Being an Outline History of the World from the Creation to the Pres- 
ent Time. Fully illustrated with Maps. By JoirN J. Anderson, A.M., 
Late Principal of Grammar School No. 31, New York City — Author of a 
Grammar School History of the United States, and of a Pictorial School 
History of the United States. 1 vol. 12mo. 420 pages. 
Characteristic Features.— 1. The latest authorities have been consulted; and the 
» arrative, which is written with clearness and conciseness, is brought down tl> the pres- 
ent time. 2. Unimportant matters are entirely omitted, or only incidentally aHluded to. 

3. The book is supplied with twenty-three maps, several of which are elegantly colored ; 
and on these the location of every important place mentioned is accurately sliowu, and 
the successive revolutions in the different nations of Europe and Asia clearly delineated. 

4. The pronunciation of all the proper names is accurately given in connection with the 
namyg as they occur; and a pronouncing index is added, by which the whole subject may 
be reviewed by topics. 5. The plan affords frequent and systematic reviews, both ac- 
cording to the chronology and by topics. 

College op the City of New Yoke, New York, March 21, 18*39. 

" From such examination as I have been able to give the Manual of General History, 
by .John J. Anderson. A.M., I have formed the following opinion as to its merits. Its plan 
is comprehensive and judicious. The details are carefully chosen, and presented with 
clearness and accuracy. Superfluous and tedious matter is excluded; yet nothing of 
importance and within the grasp of young pupils is passed over in silence. At the same 
time, I would not hesitate to make trial of it a» a syllabus or framework* for the more 
ample and minute inquiries of a college course. As a collection of facts to be committed 
to memory by students, whether of the higher grade or the lower, it appears to me 
to be superior to any other school-book on the su bject. It is particularly worthy of praise 
for its coming right down to the present time ; and it is altogether the work of a highly 
intelligent teacher for intelligent scholars. To both these classes of persons I heartily 
recommend it. "CHARLES E. ANTIION, 

" Professor of History, etc.. College City of Netv York:'' 
From Prof. Thomas EI. Buurowes, President Agricultural College, Penn., in the Penn- 
sylvania School Journal. 

" In a veiy small compass this book (Anderson's Manual of General Historv) gives the 
whole' Historj of the world, from the Creation to the end of President Johnson's term of 
office in this country; and gives it, too, in as pleasant and attractive style as probably is 
possible in a narrative which admits of nothing more than the briefest mention of "the 
thousands of events to be recorded. We like especially the maps illustrating the chief 
historical periods— such as those of the Persian Empire, ancient Greece, the Roman Em- 
pire, that of Charlemagne and the contemporary monarchs, etc. These are very instruc- 
tive. We can endorse this as a good compend of general history.'" 

From Prof. Wu. Preston Johnson, Prof, of History and English Literature, Washington 
College, Lexington, Va. 

" It is very hard to make a good elementary history, but the author appears to know 
•how to teach and what to teach. His combination of geography with historical teaching 
is necessary, and he seems to give proper weight, but not .indue place to chronology.' 1 
From R. M. Lusher, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, La., and Agent for the 
Peabody Educational Fund. 

"This Manual is one of the best compilations I have ever seen, and it certainly must 
effect a reform in the teaching of hisiory in high schools and academies. The maps and 
chronological recapitulations in the body of the work are an invaluable feature." 
From Prof. Thomas Emerson, Principal High-School, Woburn, Mass. 

" Your Manual of General History has already been introduced into our High-School 
and subjected'to the only real test of the merits of a book — daily use in the class-room! 
It is the best compend of general history I have yet seen. In the general division of the 
subject in the choice, and arrangement of the details, in the clearness and simplicity of 
the language, in the omission of the endless and uninteresting ininutiaj with which many 
icxt-books on this subject are cumbered, you have been highly successful. Unlike most 
compends of history, the narrative is well connected and pleasing, thereby attracting 
rather than repelling the student. Nor are the maps among the least valuable features of 
the book. You have fully recognized the principle that the study of History and Geog- 
raphy should go hand in hand It is extremely gratifying to find a book that 

furnishes the pupil with the leading facts of history in so attractive a manner, and leaves 
to the teacher so large an opportunity for oral instruction." 



Published by Clark & Maynard, 5 Barclay St,, New York. 



Erfoni 



Z0i 




ANCIENT HISTORY, 



ILLUSTRATED BY COLORED 



MAPS, AND A CHRONOLOGICAL CHART, 



FOR THE USE OP 



FAMILIES AND SCHOOLS, 




BY CT A\ BLOSS. 









' Geography and Chronology are the two eyes of History." 



REVISED AND IMPROVED BY 



JOHN J. ANDERSON, A. M., 

AUTHOB OF A BKEIES OF SCHOOL HISTORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



NEW YORK: 

CLARK & MAYNARD, PUBLISHERS, 

5 BARCLAY STREET." 

1873. 



PUBLISHERS' NOTICE 



The work, of which the present one is a revision, was ori- 
ginally prepared several years since, and was soon used with 
great satisfaction in some of the best educational institutions 
in the State of New York. In consequence of the death of its 
accomplished author, the work (not being stereotyped) passed 
out of print after two large editions had become exhausted. 
At the suggestion of several eminent educators, who were 
anxious to have it for use in the institutions under their own 
charge, the present edition has been published. 

Its preparation was committed to Mr. John J. Anderson, 
whose long experience as a teacher, and whose peculiar fitness 
for writing history for use in schools, as had been shown by 
the great favor with which his series of School Histories of the 
United States had been received, indicated him as eminently 
qualified for the task. His work has been chiefly confined to 
dividing the matter into convenient paragraphs, with suitable 
questions upon each, and the addition of a valuable series of 
review questions, placed after each principal division. He has 
left the body of the work as the author wrote it, with very 
slight exceptions. Indeed, one of its essential characteristics is 
the author's singular felicity of expression, combined with 
great brevity and clearness of statement. These and other 
qualities have rendered it exceedingly attractive — interesting, 
while instructing the pupil, and' making the study of ancient 
history, usually so dry, pleasant and agreeable to the young. 

New York, Sept, 1867. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, 

By CLARK & MAYNARD, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



<zz> 



PREFACE. 



np HE study of philology, and the results of historical re- 
-^- search, as well as the recent investigations in Oriental 
antiquities, have shed invaluable and unexpected light on what 
is commonly regarded as ancient history. To briefly embody 
these discoveries, and to correct the dates, so that they will con- 
form to the most authentic interpretations of the Egyptian and 
Assyrian inscriptions, is the reason for the alterations which 
have been made in the present volume. 

In Chalda^o- Assyrian history, the chronology of Sir H. 
Rawlinson has been mainly followed ; though in the recapitu- 
lation, the dates of M. Oppert, Poole, Lepsius, Gutschmidt, 
have been given, followed by their names, whenever they differ. 
In Egyptian history, the dates of Bunsen have been followed, 
though those of Lepsius, Mariette, and Brugsch have also been 
<riven for convenience of reference. The note on page 31 will 
ndicate a reason for the great diversity in the dates of the dif- 
ferent Egyptologers. In Jewish history, the dates of Ewald 
have been given, except where they differ from the results of 
M. Oppert, who has definitely fixed the chronology of the kings 
of Israel and Judah by means of the solar and lunar eclipses 



11 PREFACE. 

mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions. The dates of Ussher 
and others have also been added for convenience of reference. 
In Grecian and Eoman history the dates are those of Grote and 
Mo mm sen. 

Chronological tables have been added, which, it is believed, 
will be a valuable addition to the book, as they present, for the 
first time in an accessible form, the results of the latest re- 
searches in Eastern history on the subject of chronology. 

A few notes have also been added throughout the book, 
wherever the text needed elucidation, or later researches made 
it desirable. The few new pages at the beginning of the book 
will indicate briefly the results of the latest historical investiga- 
tions. 

July, 1872. 



CONTENTS, 



Bkctio.v— p^g 

I. The Oeigin of the Nations ..... 5 

II. Egypt ........ 16 

III. Persia ........ 32 

IV. Greece ...... .87 

" (Macedonia) ...... 223 

V. Thrace. ....... 289 

VI. Egypt 297 

VII. Rome ........ 314 

VIII. The Christian Era . . . . -404 



MAPS. 

PAGB 

No. 1. Map of Europe, Asia, and Africa as known to the ancients 7 
2. Map of Greece . . .... 87 

11 3. Map of Alexander's Travels . . . . 243 

" 4. Map op Italia . . . . • .314 

JST* INDEX AT THE END OF THE VOLUME. 



TO TEACHEES 



GENERAL PLAN OF THE WORK, AND DIRECTIONS 
FOR USING THE CHART. 

It is the plan of this work to consider the history of the 
world as divided into periods of one thousand years each, four 
of which expire^, before the commencement of the Christian 
era. These periods are called millenniums. 

The book comprises the histories of Assyria, Egypt, Persia, 
Greece, the four kingdoms formed from the empire of Alex 
ander, and Rome. Assyria, Persia, Greece, and Rome were 
the four " Universal Monarchies ;" but ns Egypt, owing to the 
extraordinary fertility and early civilization, was the parent 
of the arts and sciences, and the great fountain of heathen 
mythology, its history is introduced in the order of chronology. 

The Sacred Scriptures are the only record from which we 
derive our knowledge of the events which transpired before 
the Flood, so that the first two millenniums contain only very 
brief accounts of the Creation, the fall of man, the expulsion 
from Eden, the genealogy of the antediluvian patriarchs, their 
deaths, the wickedness of the world, and its consequent de- 
struction by the deluge, and the various settlements made in 
Asia, Africa, and Europe by the descendants of Noah. 

By consulting the Genealogical Tree, inserted at the begin- 
ning of the book, it will be seen that the children of Japheth 
peopled Europe, and those of Shem and Ham, Asia and Africa. 
From the plain of the Euphrates, the " Land of Shinar," where 
the " children of men began to build a city and a tower," were 
the tribes of the earth scattered abroad ; from Nineveh and 
Babylon, the most ancient cities, the course of empire took its 
way in a westerly direction, the scepter of universal rule being 



> 



TO TEACHERS. V 

transferred successively from the Assyrians to the Persians, 
from the Persians to the Greeks, and from the Greeks to the 
Romans. 

It is certain that no satisfactory knowledge of history can 
be acquired unless its chronology and geography are well 
understood. A free and systematic use of the Chronological 
Chart and Maps is therefore especially recommended. A class 
consisting of ten pupils might represent a millennium, each 
pupil naming from the chart the principal events of one cen- 
tury. Let this exercise take place preliminary to the recita- 
tion of every lesson. The uniform flow of time will thus be 
clearly presented, and cotemporaneous events fixed indelibly 
upon the memory. Beside a systematic use of the chart, such 
as is here suggested, a variety of questions could be asked, 
which, in answering from the chart, would convey to the mind 
of the learner, in the readiest manner, facts of a comprehensive 
character. 

Take these, for example : 

How long was it from Adam to Noah ? Adam to Abra- 
ham ? Adam to Solomon ? Noah to Abraham ? Noah to 
Solomon ? Noah to the Christian era ? From the Creation 

to the Flood ? What was the most important event in 

millennium ? Which millennium contained the most important 
events ? Why ? At what time did the history of Greece 
commence ? What was the duration of the Roman Empire ? 
&c, &c. 

An alphabetical list of the names of individuals and places 
pronounced will be found in the closing pages of this work, 
and it is proposed that the teacher require the scholar, as an 
exercise in composition, to write a biography of every impor- 
tant character, and a history of every important place. 



... 



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EIOIOPE, ASIA <fe AFRICA, 

ASJO0WNT0 T.ffK 






MS 1. 



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rx T3 L O P\» 



40 



JK. 






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■llMHBiiMfiM 



THE ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. 

I. There is do precise and consecutive history of the first man, or the 
origin of our species, except that in the Bible. The narrative in the 
Bible of the creation of man, the deluge, and the dispersion of the 
human race, have indirectly been corroborated by the discoveries in 
the natural sciences, the traditions of other nations, and the results of 
comparative philology. " The Bible assigns no precise date to the 
origin of the human species ; it gives no positive time for that event. 
It has in reality no chronology for the early epochs of man's existence ; 
neither for that which extends from the creation to the deluge, nor for 
that which reaches from the deluge to the call of Abraham. The 
dates which commentators have attempted to fix are purely arbitrary, 
and have no dogmatic authority. They belong to the domain of his- 
torical hypothesis, and one might mention a hundred attempts to make 
the calculation, each time with a different result. Equally useless, 
equally devoid of solid foundation, as are these calculations regarding 
the dates of man's creation, would be the attempt to determine from 
the Bible the exact place of the cradle of our species, or of the Garden 
of Eden. Everything bids us hold the common opinion which places 
in Asia the origin of the first human family, and the source of all civil- 
ization." 

NOTE. — The Dispersion.— The place where the Bible narrative states that the ark 
rested after the deluge, the starting-point for the sons of Noah, is Mount Ararat. After the 
most careful investigations, the mountain mass of Little Bokhara and Western Thibet 
is agreed upon as the place whence the human race issued. Here the largest rivers of 
Asia— the Indus, the Oxus, and the Jaxartes — take their rise. From this, as a centre, 
the families of Shem, Ham, and Japhet were dispersed. The family of Ham, from 
whom the people of Phoenicia, of Egypt, and Ethiopia were descended, was the first to 
leave the common centre. Of the four sons of Ham, the race of dish has been identified 
with the Ethiopians, the Egyptians with Mizraim, the Libyans with Phut, and Canaan 
with the Phoenicians, and all the tribes lying between the Mediterranean and the Dead 
Sea before the settlement of the Hebrews. 

The race of Shem was the next to leave the country where the descendants of Noah 
dwelt after the flood. They occupied the countries extending from Mesopotamia 
to the southern part of Arabia, and from the Mediterranean Sea to the country beyond 
the Tigris. In many places, as the country bordered by the Oxus. the banks of the 
Tigris, a part of India, the Cushite race was probably expelled first by the descendants 
of Shem, and by the Aryans, the sons of Japhet. Of the descendants of Ham, Eber was 
the progenitor of the Hebrews, Joktan of the Arabs, Lud of the people of Lydia. 

The race of Japhet was the last to leave their home. They migrated to the south, 
crossed the Hindo Koosh, and entered India, subjugating the earlier Hamitic tribes, and 
to the west over the most of Europe, and became the progenitors of the Sanskrits, 
Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Teutonic tribes. 

It is supposed by many that the descendants of Magog, a name representing the 
races which have been designated by philologists as Turanian, was the first of the family 
of Japhet to go forth from their home, from the fact that wherever the Japhetic race 

?uestions.—\. What is said of the Bible narrative? Of its chronology? Of the time 
he deluge ? The call of Abraham ? Of man's creation ? Of the source of civiliza- 
tion ? Where was Mount Ararat ? What rivers rise near here ? Describe these rivers. 



6 ASSYRIA. [b. c. 3600. 

extended it encountered a Turanian population, which it subdued. The descendants of 
tin- son-- of Noah included only the white race, who. speaking the same language in the 
land of Shinar, were dispersed in consequence of the confusion of tongues at the build- 
ing of the Tower of Babel. The negroes in the days of the Pharaohs, and the yellow and 
red races, have no mention in the sacred narrative. 

Comparative Philology.— The results of comparative philology teaches that in 
every language there are three distinct epochs: the monosyllabic, the agglutinative, and 
the inflected. The monosyllabic languages consist only of simple words expressing the 
idea, the notion, independent of their relations to other words, as the ancient Chinese. 
The agglutinated languages, in which two roots are joined together to form words, one 
of them loses its independent meaning and becomes subsidiary to the other, have re- 
ceived the name of Turanian, which comprises all the languages spoken in Europe and 
Asia not included under the Aryan or Semitic families. The inflected languages, in 
which the roots coalesce, bo that neither the one nor the other retains its substantive 
independence, have been divided into two great families, the Semitic and the Indo-Euro- 
pean, Aryan, or Japhetic. The Semitic languages embrace the valley of the Tigris and 
Euphrates, Syria and Arabia. It should not be inferred from this that the name Semitic was 
restricted to those countries peopled by the race of Shem, for a large part of the Hamitic 
aations spoke the Semitic languages. The Indo-European embraced those countries 
from the plains of India, across the plateau of Iran, the highlands of Armenia, into Europe, 
of which it covers nearly the whole surface. Thus it will be seen from this brief survey 
that the results of comparative philology are in substantial accord with the narrative of 
the Bible ; that the races were originally one ; that they emigrated from a region of Central 
Asia, at the east of the Caspian and northwest of India ; that they were originally a 

fastoral people, gradually changing their habits as they descended into the plains of the 
ndus and the Euphrates. The method of investigation, as applied to the Aryan, is as 
follows : It is found that the names of many common objects are the same in all the 
families of the languages of this stock, and it would be unreasonable to suppose that 
two nations widely separated would have independently selected the same name for the 
same object. Thus the word for house in Greek is 86/xos, in Latin domvs. in San- 
skrit dama, in Zend demana, from which root comes our word domestic From the 
fact that the same word was used by all these different nations to designate the same 
object, it is pretty certain that the ancient Aryans lived in houses. So with the word 
for boat ; but as the words designating masts, sails, yards, are different in the different 
families, it is supposed that the Aryans, before their separation, sailed only in boats with 
oars on the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, and were unacquainted with the use of sails, etc. 
Pursuing the same method of investigation, the results are briefly these: they had oxen, 
horses, goats, sheep, and domestic fowls ; their food was chiefly the products of the 
dairy and the flesh of the cattle. The cow was the most important animal, and gave the 
name to many plants, to thte clouds, which they called the cows of the sun. that the 
children of the morning drove every day to their pastures in the blue fields of heaven. 
The Aryans also had barley, knew the use of the plough, the mill for grinding, the 
hammer, the hatchet, and the auger. They were also acquainted with the metals, gold, 
silver, copper, and tin. They knew how to spin and weave ; their houses had doors, 
windows, and fireplaces ; they had cloaks ; they boiled and roasted their meat ; they had 
lances and swords, the bow and arrow, but no armor; they had family life, some simple 
laws, games, the dance, and wind instruments. They had the decimal system, and 
divided the year according to the periodical revolutions of the moon ; they worshipped 
the sun, moon, and stars, fire and water. In this way the early history of a people 
extending far beyond any authentic records possessed" by man, has been partially re- 
stored. For a further investigation of this subject, the pupil is referred to Max Miiller's 
Science of Language. 

2. b. c. 8G00. — The Chaldjean Empire. — After the dispersion of 
"'ie races, there lived in the Tigro-Euphrates basin a mixed population, 
livided into two principal elements, the one living at the north, the 
other at the south. These various peoples living on the soil of Baby- 
lonia and Chaldaea, at first separate, were united at times und^r one 
sceptre. The seat of empire was sometimes transferred to the north, 
sometimes to the south, and again from the south to the north, and the 
Mesopotamian empire received the name Chaldoean (Old Babylonian), 
or Assyrian, according to the seat of power at the time. " Cush," says 



Si.— Question.— Describe how the Chaldsean empire was founded. 



b. c. 1314.] THE ORIGIN" OF THE NATIONS. 7 

the Bible, " begat Nimrod. He was a mighty hunter before the Lord. 
And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, 
and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of this land went forth Asshur, 
and builded Nineveh." About 2500 b. 0., the first Cushite dynasty of 
Babylon was expelled by invaders of the Aryan race, and these in 
turn were expelled by other conquerors, until the conquest by Assyria 
in about b. c. 1314. From the inscriptions stamped on the bricks 
used in building, the names of the reigning kings have been discovered. 
The skill in building, the knowledge of working metals, gold, bronze, 
lead, and even iron, have been proved from the monumental remains 
and from the utensils found in the tombs. Astronomy had been culti- 
vated with great success, and in the most remote times to which the 
monuments relate, its study was far advanced in Chaldaea. They prob- 
ably carried on an extensive commerce from the ports of the Persian 
Gulf, along the course of the Euphrates, and by caravans across the 
Syrian desert to Phoenicia. The Chaldseans also devised the system of 
mapping the heavens out into constellations, and naming the stars. To 
their astronomical records is due the only trustworthy clue we have 
to their chronology. Prof. Rawlinson says that " for the last three 
thousand years the world has been mainly indebted for its advance- 
ment to the Semitic and Indo-European races ; but it was otherwise in 
the first ages. Egypt and Babylon, Mizraim and Nimrod, both de- 
scendants of Ham, led the way, and acted as the pioneers of mankind 
in the various untrodden fields of art, literature and science. Alpha- 
betic writing, astronomy, history, chronology, architecture, plastic art, 
sculpture, navigation, agriculture, textile industry, seem all of them to 
have had their origin in one or other of these two countries." 

3. For several centuries Ur was the capital of the Chaldaean empire, and 
its power extended over the whole of the Mesopotamian plain, including 
Assyria. In a few centuries Assyria regained its independence. About 
the middle of the seventeenth century Mesopotamia was subdued by 
Egypt, and its history is written on the monuments of Egypt until 



Questions.— Describe the Tigris. The Euphrates. What four cities were founded. 
What race first lived in Chaldaea ? Am. The Turanians : they were the first race to 
spread out into the world, and probably covered the great extent of territory, both in 
Europe and Asia, before the great Semitic and Aryan migrations. The Turanians also 
brought to Babylon and Assyria the cuneiform system of writing, so called because each 
character was formed by a number of marks having the form of a wedge. What has 
been discovered in regard to the civilization? Of their trade? What is said of their 
chronology ? What does Prof. Rawlinson say of their civilization ? 3. What was the 
capital of the empire? Its extent? Mesopotamia is derived from two words, 
which signify (a land) between two rivtrs. How is it known that it was conquered by 
Egypt? 



8 ASSYRIA. [b. c. 1115. 

b. c. 1314, when Assyria succeeded in throwing off the Egyptian yoke, 
and extending its power over Mesopotamia. 

4. b. c. 1 4L 1 «5. — Assyrian Empire. — The kingdom of Assyria, with 
Nineveh for its capital, increased in power until it extended its sway 
over all of Mesopotamia. Ctesias relates that Ninus claimed to be the 
son of the god Bel us ; but as such assumptions of divinity were com- 
mon in those early ages, nothing can be determined as to his paren- 
tage. Ninus so much enlarged and beautified Nineveh, that he is 
styled its founder. This great city, situated upon the Tigris, was an 
oblong square, 60 miles in circumference ; surrounded by walls 100 
feet high, and so thick that three chariots might be driven abreast on 
the top of them. Upon the walls stood 1,500 towers, each 200 feet in 
height ; and the whole was so strong as to bid defiance to all weapons 
of warfare then known. Ninus is said to have spent seventeen years in 
conquest, and to have extended the bounds of his dominions over the 
whole of Middle Asia. In Bactria he would have suffered defeat but 
for the counsel and conduct of Semiramis, wife of one of his officers. 
He married her after the death of her husband, but she could not be 
satisfied to rule the empire by influencing the emperor ; she was deter- 
mined to be absolute sovereign ; and the doting Ninus having been 
persuaded to commit to her hands the government for five days, she 
contrived to attach the principal lords to her interest, and procuring 
the death of her husband, possessed herself of the empire. 

To immortalize her name, Semiramis employed 2,000,000 men in 
enlarging, fortifying, and beautifying Babylon. Its walls were not 
inferior to those of Nineveh ; its whole area was divided into 676 
squares by the streets, which crossed each other at right angles ; these 
streets were terminated at each end by massive gates of brass, over- 
looked on each side by lofty towers ; and the mighty river which rolled 
through the town was inclosed with walls as strong as those which en- 
compassed the city. 

She visited every part of her dominions, and left in every place 
monuments of her greatness. The country was rough and unculti- 
vated. She hollowed mountains, filled up valleys, built aqueducts, 
levelled roads, and converted the unbroken wilderness into fertile 
plains. She extended her dominions beyond Asia even. Ethiopia 
submitted to her arms, and in Africa she visited the temple of Jupiter 
Amnion, to inquire of the oracle how long she should live. She was 
answered, "Till her son conspired against her." On her return she 
undertook the conquest of India, but was signally defeated. Her son 

Qus:tion<t.—i. What is said of the kingdom of Assyria ? Of Ninus ? Of Semiramis ? 



b. c. 800.] THE ORIJIN OF THE NATIONS. 9 

seized upon this occasion to alienate the affections of her people, and 
this coming to her knowledge, she resigned her dominions, and retired 
to a private station. The Assyrians worshipped her under the form of 
the white dove. 

5. This is the narrative, as given by the Greek historian ; but the study 
of the Assyrian monuments and inscriptions prove positively that 
neither Ninus nor his wife Semiramis ever existed. The name Ninus 
is only a personification for the whole history of Nineveh, and Semi- 
ramis has been borrowed from an historical queen Avho lived five cen- 
turies later. 

The history of the succeeding kings possesses but little interest or 
importance. The monuments supply us with a vivid picture, it is 
true, of their life in war and peace ; but of the people we know little 
more than that they fought the battles of the monarch, and served as 
beasts of burden in the transportation of their monuments, and swelled 
the pomp of their processions. The records of private life which have 
been preserved in the wall-paintings of Egyptian tombs are entirely 
wanting in Assyria. The history of art and civilization in Nineveh, as 
attested by the monuments, has been summed up by Prof. Rawlinson 
as follows : " With much that was barbaric still attaching to them, 
with a rude and unartificial government, savage passions, a debasing 
religion, and a general tendency to materialism, they were, towards the 
close of the empire, in all the arts and appliances of life, very nearly 
on a par with ourselves, and thus their history furnishes a warning 
which the records of nations constantly repeat, that the greatest material 
prosperity may co-exist with the decline, and herald the downfall, of 
a kingdom." 

6. b. c. 800-789.— Sardanapalus was the last king of the First 
Assyrian Empire. His vices and follies alone rescue his name from obli- 
vion. A monument found by Alexander, in Cilicia, proves that he must 
have made an expedition to Western Asia ; but the greatest part of his 
time was spent in his seraglio, spinning with the women, or imitating 
their habits of dress and conversation. His effeminate manners ren- 
dered him contemptible ; and Arbaces, a Median governor, with Belesis, 
the most distinguished member of the Chaldsean sacerdotal college, 



-5. On whose authority have these stories heen related ? How have they 
proved to be false? What is said of the succeeding kings? Of the people? How do 
the inscriptions here differ from the paintings in Egypt ? What has Prof. Rawlinson 
said of their government, religion, civilization, etc. ? 6. What is said of Sardanapalus? 
Note.— The destruction of Nineveh, where Sardanapalus is said to have heen killed, 
is not regarded as historical by Prof. Rawlinson, hut the narrative in the text is in 
agreement with M. Oppert. 



10 



ASSYRIA 



[b. o. 705. 



conspired against him, and collected a numerous force to dethrone him. 
Sardanapalus quitted foi a while his voluptuous retreat, and appeared 
at the head of his armies. He was beaten, and besieged in the city of 
Nineveh two years. At last, finding all was lost, he erected a throne of 
his treasures, collected his women about him, and having set fire to 
*he palace, perished with them in the flames. Thus ended the First 
Assyrian Empire, 1450 years after its founding by Nimrod. The con- 
spirators seized upon the government, and divided it between them, 
vhence arose two kingdoms, (b. c. 789, Oppert.) 



7. b. c. 789. Arbaces, after his capture 
»f Nineveh (in b. c. 789, Oppert), is said 
to have retired from the country. He is 
called in Scripture Tiglathpileser. He 
took the city of Damascus, and put an 
end to the Syrian kingdom, which had 
long vexed the Jews, and he made Ahaz, 
king of Judah, pay dearly for being de- 
livered from his troublesome neighbors. 

Read 2 Kings xvi. 7-9. Isa. xvii. 1-3. Amos 
i. 3, 4. 



9. b. c. 728. The two Kingdoms re- 
united.— Salmanaser, son of Ninus II., 
besieged Samaria three years, and after 
the people had suffered every hardship, 
took the city and carried the inhabitants 
captive, 250 years after the revolt of Is- 
rael from Judah, 721 b. c. 

b. c. 705. Sennacherib exacted a 
tribute of Hezekiah ; and not content 
with " all the treasures of the house of 
the Lord, and of the king's house," in- 
vaded Judea with a large army. By his 
emissaries he insulted the already hum- 
bled Jews, and blasphemed against the 



8. The Babylonish As- 
syrians ruled by Belesis. 
— Belesis took up his resi- 
dence at Babylon. With his 
reign began the famous era 
of Nabonassar, according to 
Berosus, in this manner : 
" Nabonassar, having col- 
lected the acts of his prede- 
cessors, destroyed them, in 
order that the computation 
of the reigns of the Chaldaean 
kings might be made from 
himself." 

10. Prince Merodach Ba- 
ladan sent to congratulate 
Hezekiah upon his recovery 
from sickness, and to in- 
quire about the shadow's 
going back upon the dial 
of Ahaz, for the Chaldseans 
were great astronomers. 
They had records in their 
city of observations made 
1500 years before, or about 
the time of the confusion 
of tongues. Of the succeed- 
ing kings of Babylon we 



Questions.— 6. What was his fate ? How was the first Assyrian Empire brought to a 
close ? 7. What did Arbaces do ? By what other names is he known ? Where is Damas- 
cus ? (See map No. 1.) 8. What can you state of Belesis ? How did the reign of Nabon- 
assar begin ? 9. What did Salmanaser accomplish ? What did Sennacherib do ? 



B. c. 680.] 



BABYLON SUBDUED. 



11 



know little, except their 
names. 

Read 2 Kings xx. 11-15. Trace 
the embassadors from Babylon to 
Jerusalem. 



God of heaven ; hut Ilezekiah spread his 
impious letter before the Lord, and re- 
ceived assurances of divine protection. 
That night the destroying angel was sent 
forth into the camp of the Assyrians, and 
185,000 of Sennacherib's host slept the 
sleep of death. Filled with shame and 
rage, the impious king returned to Nine- 
veh, where two of his own sons conspired 
against him and slew him. Then his son, 
Esarhaddon, reigned in his stead. 

Eead 2 Kings xviii. 13-20, and xix. 8-37. Also 
read 2 Kings xvii. 1-7. Lev. xxvi. 32, 33, and Deut. 
xxviii. 36. 

13. b. o. 680.— Esarhaddon, perceiving that Babylon was filled 
with anarchy, took advantage of the times to reduce it to its former sub- 
jection. Thus he reunited the Assyrian Empire, b. c. 680. He planted 
strangers in the land of Israel, who were the progenitors of the Sama- 
ritans. In his reign Manasseh was carried to Babylon, where he 
remained in captivity 12 years. In the days of King Nebuchadnezzar 
I. several tributary princes revolted, and he was involved in a war 
with the Medes. 

Read 2 Kings xvii. 24, and Ea. iv. 2-10. 

14. The monarch Saracus resembled Sardanapalus in his taste and 
pursuits. The general of his army, Nabopolassar, having the burden 
of state affairs to sustain, thought himself more worthy of the throne 
than his effeminate monarch. He accordingly formed an alliance with 
Cyaxares, king of Media, to dethrone the last of the race of Arbaces. 
With their joint forces they besieged Saracus in Nineveh, and finally 
gained possession of the place and slew the monarch. After this the 
glory of Nineveh faded, and Babylon, its ancient rival, became the 
most famous city in the world. 

Read Nahum, chap. iii. 

15. Nabopolassar the Chaldean, having thus acquired sovereign 
power, commenced a new dynasty, under which Assyria reached its 
greatest glory, and fell to rise no more. By his warlike exploits he 

Questions. — 11. How did his invasion of Judea end? What became of Sennacherib? 
Who was his successor? 12. What is said of the Chaldeans? What act did Merodach 
Baladan perform? 13. W hat did Esarhaddon accomplish? What is stated of Manasseh? 
Trace the strangers from Nineveh to Samaria. Nebuchadnezzar from Nineveh to Media. 
14. Give an account of Saracus. When was he slaia? Ans. 64S b. c. What is said 
of the subsequent history of Nineveh and Babylon? 15. What is said of Assyria under 
Nabopolassar ? 



12 ASSYRIA. [b. c 600. 

roused the jealousy of all Lis neighbors. Necho, king of Egypt, marched 
to the Euphrates to stop his conquests, Syria and Palestine revolted, 
and he found himself in his old age surrounded by enemies. In this 
emergency he thought proper to invest his son Nebuchadnezzar with 
a share in the government. The young prince proved himself worthy 
of his father's confidence. He invaded Palestine, took Jehoiakim, 
and carried him captive to Babylon, with numerous young persons of 
the royal family, among whom were Daniel and the three children, 
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. This event took place in the 4th 
year of Jehoiakim, b. o. 606. 

Eead 2 Kings xxiv. 47, and 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, 7. Dan. i. 1, 2. Jer. xlvL 2, 25, 26. 

16. b. c. GOO. — In 599 Nebuchadnezzar fought a great battle with 
Necho, and entirely defeated him. In the beginning of his reign he 
had a remarkable dream, which, as interpreted by Daniel, contained 
the history of all succeeding ages. By his officers Jehoiachin was 
deposed, and Zedekiah placed upon the throne of David, but he also 
rebelled against the king of Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar went in per- 
son to punish the treachery of Zedekiah. He besieged Jerusalem two 
years, and when all the bread was spent in the city, the men of war 
attempted to flee by the way of the plain, but were captured by the 
hosts of Chaldea. The Holy and Beautiful house built by Solomon 
perished in the conflagration of the city, and all the precious things of 
the sanctuary, together with the king and his nobles, were carried to 
Babylon, b. o. 588. 

Read 2 Kings xxiv. 10-20; xxv. 1-8. 2 Chr. xxxvi. 9-21. Jer. lii. 4-12. 

17. Taking of Tyee. — Four years after, Nebuchadnezzar besieged 
Tyre, a strongly fortified and opulent city of Phenicia, a the Queen of 
the sea, whose merchants were princes, and whose nobles were among 
the honorable of the earth." Here, for thirteen years, his troops suf- 
fered incredible hardships, so that u every head was made bald, and 
every shoulder was peeled ;" and when the place finally surrendered, 
the exhausted besiegers found no treasure within its walls to reward 
their labors, the inhabitants having removed their principal effects to 
an island about half a mile distant, where in a short time a new c«ty 
arose which far eclipsed the glory of the old. 

Read Ez. xxix. 18-20 and Is. xxiii. 5-9, 11, 13. 

Questions. — 15. Whom did he invest with a share in his government? Why did he take thia 
step? What did Nebuchadnezzar accomplish? 16. What occurred in 599 B. c. ? What is 
said of a dream ? On what expedition did Nebuchadnezzar go? With what result? Where 
is Jerusalem? (See map No. 1). 17. When did Nebuchadnezzar besiege Tyre? Give an 
acco nt of the siege. 



b. c. 600.] NEBUCHADNEZZAR. l;j 

18. Conquest of Egypt. — Nebuchadnezzar then turned himself 
upon Egypt, which was at that time suffering from intestine commo- 
tions. Amasis and Apries having divided the people by a contest for 
the throne, no effectual resistance was offered to the invaders. " The 
good of all the land of Egypt was before them," and they spared 
nothing. With the spoil of the splendid temples of Apis, and the 
wealth of the conquered people, the great king returned to Babylon, 
having rendered the country tributary, and made Amasis his deputy. 

Read Is. xix. 1, 4, 17, 22, 23. Jer. xlvi. 13, 25, 26. Ez. xxx. 10, 13, 24-26. 

19. Nebuchadnezzar was now sole monarch of Ohaldea, Assyria, 
Syria, Arabia, Palestine, Egypt, and Ethiopia. He married Amyit, 
princess of Media, who rivaled Semiramis in the splendid works with 
which she beautified the city of Babylon. A bridge 5 furlongs in 
length spanned the Euphrates, aud terminated at each end in a palace 
of vast dimensions. The old palace on the east side of the river was 
nearly 4 miles in circumference, but the new palace, surrounded with 
three walls, one within another, was 7 miles in compass. In the last 
palace were the Hanging gardens, built by Amyit to resemble the 
woody country of Media. Arches were raised on arches till they 
reached the height of the walls ; the ascent was from terrace to terrace 
by stairs ten feet wide. On the top of the arches were first placed large 
fiat stones, then a layer of reeds, then bricks closely cemented toge- 
ther, and then thick sheets of lead upon which lay the mold of the 
garden, so deep that trees of the largest size might take root in it ; and 
beneath their shade were plants and flowers of the greatest beauty 
and most exquisite perfume. An engine at the top drew up the 
waters of the river and scattered them in showers over the gardens, 
and in the spaces between the arches magnificent apartments were 
fitted up, commanding a delightful prospect of artificial hills and 
forests, streams and fountains. 

20. Temple of Belus. — Near the center of the city stood this edifice. 
It was circular, having eight stories, diminishing upwards to the height 
of 600 feet. The wealth of this temple, in statues, tables, censers, cups, 
and other implements of massive gold, was almost incredible. One 
ancient writer makes it amount to $100,000,000. On the summit was 
an observatory, from which the Chaldean astrologers watched the 
motions of the stars, and made those calculations which Callisthcnes 

Questions.— 18. What was Nebuchadnezzar's next movement? What rendered the un- 
dertaking easy ? How was the king rewarded? 19. To what power did Nebuchadnezzar 
attain y Whom did he marry? How was Babylon beautified? Give a description of the 
H»s»s : ng Gardens. 20. Give a description of the Temple of Belus. 



14 ASSYRIA. [b. C. 555. 

transcribed and sent to Aristotle. Nebuchadnezzar, proud of the 
mighty realm which owned his sway, and proud of the magnificent 
city which he had enriched with the spoils of Nineveh, Jerusalem, and 
Egypt, refused to listen to the warnings of that Daniel who had made 
him acquainted with the divine will. But in the very hour " when 
his heart was lifted up, and his mind hardened in pride," he was seized 
with a kind of madness, and driven from his throne to dwell with the 
beasts of the field. At the end of seven years his reason returned to 
him, his kingdom was restored, and excellent majesty was added unto 
him. He reigned 43 years. 
Read Dan. iv. 30-36. 

21. — b. o. 561. Evil-Merodach, son of Nebuchadnezzar, was a gentle 
and weak prince, unfitted to govern the vast empire left to his care. 
He was dethroned after two years by Nereglissar, his sister's husband. 

b. o. 559. — If the success of Nereglissar had equaled his ambition, 
Assyria would have had little cause to lament the change in adminis- 
tration ; but, endeavoring to extend his dominions, he periled all. 
After making alliance with Croesus, king of Lydia, he declared war 
against the Medes, but was slain in the first battle. His son Laboro- 
soarchod, the man with the long name, the wicked life, and short 
reign, succeeded him. Nine months his subjects bore with his impi- 
ous cruelty, and then put him to death, 
tfcead 2 Kings xxv. 27-30. 

22. b. o. 555. — While the contest with the Medes was still undecided, 
and the Assyrians were lost in luxury, the sceptre descended to the 
weak hands of Belshazzar, grandson of Nebuchadnezzar. The war 
with Cyrus, and the danger of his kingdom, could not draw him away 
from his pleasures. His armies and allies were defeated, and finally 
Babylon alone, of all his vast dominions, held out against the con- 
queror. For two years this city was closely invested ; yet such was 
the strength of its fortifications — such the quantities of provisions 
6tored in its granaries, and afforded by its gardens — that the Assyrians, 
thinking themselves secure, ridiculed the besiegers from the walls, 
and defied them from their impregnable towers. 

23. Taking of Babylon. — Nebuchadnezzar, in repairing the walls 
of the Euphrates, had made a great lake to receive the waters of the 



Questions. — 20. Why did Nebuchadnezzar refuse to listen to the divine warnings? What 
consequently befell him ? What further account can you give of him ? Trace the Chaldean 
armies to Jerusalem ; to Tyre; to Egypt. 21. What can you state of Evil-Merodach ? Of 
Nereglissar? Who succeeded him? Stive an account of Laborosoarchod. 22. Who was 
Belshazzar? What was his character? What city was the last of his possessions? By 
whom was it then invested? Why was it not readily captured ? 23. What plan of cap- 
ture did C.) rus finally decide upon ? 



b. c. 538.] BELSHAZZAR. 15 

river, and had secured its entrance with strong dykes. Cyrus, having 
earned that on a certain day a grand festival was to be celebrated, 
sent a party of soldiers to break down the dam, and let the waters flow 
away from their accustomed channel ; then dividing the rest of his 
army, he stationed one part at the place where the river entered the 
city, and the other where it came out, with orders to enter the channel 
as soon as the water was fordable, and approach each other. The 
dykes were broken down ; and the waters filling the lake, and the 
trench of circumvallation which the Persians had spent the two years 
in digging, the bed of the mighty stream was left nearly dry. About 
midnight the army of Cyrus passed under the walls, and proceeded 
silently along the channel to a point near the center of the great 
palace ; that palace in which Belshazzar, surrounded by his drunken 
lords, was listening with quaking heart to Daniel's interpretation of 
the handwriting on the wall. 

24. — The brazen gates leading to the river had been left unfastened ; 
the guards, partaking in the negligence and disorder of the night, 
offered but a feeble resistance, and the city was filled with the enemy 
before the doomed inhabitants awoke from their fancied security. 
Belshazzar was slain at the door of his palace, and Babylon fell into 
the hands of Cyrus, b. 0. 538. Thus ended the Second Assyrian Em- 
pire, 251 years after its founding by Arbaces. Assyria then became a 
Persian province. 

Kead Jer. 1. 1, 3, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 29, 35, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44; Jer. li. 1-14, 28, 30, 81 
82, 39, 55-58 ; Dan. v. entire. 

The Chaldean Dynasty of Assyria. 

Nabopolassar. 

2 I Nebuchadnezzar the Great. 

3 I Evil-Merodach. 



Nereglissar, 



•av 



Laborosoarchod. I 5 I I £ I Belshazzar. 



Questions— 24. Give a further account of the success of Cyrus. What was Belshazzar*5 
fate? When did that event occur? 



EGYPT. 

Egypt, in commencing with Misraim, 3623 b. c, and ending with Psammenitus, 525 B. 
continued about 3098 years. 

SECTION" II. 

1. Egypt, one of the most celebrated spots on the face of the globe, 
occupies the northeastern corner of Africa, lying between the Medi- 
terranean Sea on the north, and Nubia on the south ; and between the 
Red Sea on the east, and the deserts on the west. It is about 600 
miles long, and 350 broad ; but its most interesting portion is a vale, 
varying in width from 15 to 20 miles on each side of the Nile. This 
majestic river, the source of its wealth and fertility, rises in the moun- 
tains of Abyssinia, and, running nearly parallel to the Red Sea, flows 
into the Mediterranean by seven different mouths. 

2. It never rains in Egypt, but the want of showers is abundantly 
supplied by the annual overflowing of the Nile, which, bringing down 
the precious mud from the mountains, deposits it upon the earth, and 
imparts to it a richness greater than is found in the soil of any other 
country. Ancient Egypt, in fact, unlike every other country on the 
globe, brought forth its produce independent of the seasons and the 
skies ; and while continued drought in the neighboring countries 
brought one season of scarcity after another, the granaries of Egypt 
were always full. Its early settlement and civilization were doubtless 
owing to these favorable circumstances. 

3. No part of ancient history is more obscure and uncertain than 
that of Egypt. That it was peopled in the earliest ages, its monuments 
most fully prove ; but the traditions and records preserved by its 
priests are so beclouded with fabulous boasting, that it is impossible 
to separate the true from the false. According to the religious legends 
preserved in volumes of papyrus, and shown to Herodotus when he 
visited Egypt, the deities themselves first ruled the country. To them 
succeeded a race of demi-gods, of which Osiris was the head. Next 
followed a dynasty of kings, composed of real flesh and blood, of whom 



Egypt. — Questions. — 1. How is Egypt located ? Whatare its dimensions? What can yon 
(state of the Nile? 2. Of its overflowings? Of the fertility of ancient Egypt ? Whatare 
the boundaries of Egypt ? 3. What is said of the early history of Egypt ? Why is this so ! 
8. What is set forth in the religious legends of the country? 



b. c. 3623.] EGYPTIAN WORSHIP. 17 

Menes was the first. This Menes, they said, completed the work of 
the gods by perfecting the arts of life, and dictating to men the laws 
he had received from the skies. Though many new rites were added 
in after ages, yet to him Egypt owed its peculiar religious institutions, 
and general plan of animal worship. 

4. Osiris the sun, and Isis the moon, were the principal objects of 
adoration, — Osiris dwelling in the body of the bull Apis, and Isis 
existing under several mystic forms. Magnificent temples were erected 
to their honor, and numerous ceremonies were performed before them. 
If Apis lived 25 years, he was drowned in a sacred fountain ; if he 
died before that period, all Egypt went into mourning, and this mourn- 
ing continued till a new Apis was found. The deceased animal was 
embalmed in the most costly manner, and buried with such pomp, 
that on one occasion the funeral expenses amounted to a sum equal to 
$55,000. 

5. The priests then traversed the whole land in quest of a successor. 
He must be a calf of a perfectly black color, with a square white spot 
in the forehead, the figure of an eagle upon the back, a crescent on 
the side, and a beetle on the tongue. These marks were of course 
produced by the contrivance of the priests; but the people, supposing 
them to be indubitable evidences that he contained the soul of Osiris, 
were filled with the greatest joy when he was brought in triumph to 
Memphis. Here in his splendid temple, "the walls of which shone 
with gold and silver, and sparkled with the gems of India and Ethio- 
pia," he was served by a whole college of priests, who fed him from 
golden dishes, and attended him with the utmost care. 

6. The annual festival of Apis began with the rising of the Nile, and 
presented for seven days a scene of uninterrupted rejoicing. The god 
was then displayed to the view of the people, covered with embroidered 
cloths of the finest texture, and surrounded by a whole troop of boys, 
singing songs in his praise. Many other animals were also esteemed 
deities. The dog, the wolf, the hawk, the crocodile, and the cat, were 
popular divinities, and he who killed one of them, even by accident, 
was punished with death. At the decease of a cat, every inmate of 
the family cut off his eyebrows; but when a dog died the whole head 
was shaven. It was customary for Egyptian soldiers to return after 

Eead Ez. xxxii. 1-6, 18, 19. 

Quentiori8.—4. Who were Osiris and Isis? What was done with reference to Apis? 
5. What else was done with reference to Apis? 6. Give an account of the festival of Apis. 
How were other animals also esteemed? Name some that were so esteemed. What penalty 
was affixed to the killing of them ? 



13 EGYPT. [b. c. 3623 

long expeditions, bringing with them the bodies of these animals 
which they had found on their journey, and embalmed with super- 
stitious care. 

7. They also worshiped certain portions of the vegetable kingdoms, 
whence the poet took occasion to satirize them : 

" But should you leeks or onions eat, no time 
Would expiate the sacrilegious crime ; 
Keligious nations sure, and blest abodes, 
Where every orchard is o'errun with gods!". 

Among the institutions of Egypt, none exercised a more important 
influence on the character of the nation than the division of the people 
into tribes, or castes. The son was obliged, by the customs of the 
country, to follow the trade of his father ; so that priests, warriors, 
herdsmen, and traders, were always distinct classes. 

8. According to the Egyptian doctrine of transmigration, the soul 
of man was destined to pass through the bodies of different animals, 
and, at the end of 3000 years, to return and inhabit a human form : 
but the cycle could not commence till the body began to perish ; hence, 
say many historians, arose the practice of embalming the dead. The 
greatest attention was bestowed upon this work, which was enforced 
by severe and sacred laws. Many hands were employed in the cere- 
mony : some drew the brain through the nostrils ; others opened the 
side and took out all the softer parts of the body ; others then filled 
the cavities with spices and drugs. After a certain time the body was 
wrapped in fine linen, dipped in gum, and impregnated with perfumes; 
finally it was delivered to the relatives, who put it in an open chest, 
and placed it upright against the wall of a sepulchre. 

9. The chains of rocky mountains which bounded the valley of the 
Nile were formed into vast catacombs, and fitted up with chambers 
for the repose of the dead. The tomb was always prepared for the 
husband and his wife. Whoever died first was deposited there, oi 
kept embalmed in the house till the decease of the other. The upper 
rooms of the tombs were ornamented with paintings and sculptured 
figures, representing the Egyptians in all the occupations of every-day 
life. All the operations of agriculture — plowing, sowing, and reaping ; 
all the employments of the housewife — spinning, weaving, sewing, 
washing, dressing; all the mechanic arts; all the amusements of the 
people, even the very balls and dolls with which the children played, 

Questions.—!. What else did the people worship? What is said of the tribe and caste 
divisions? What was the son obliged to do? What was the result? 8. What, say histo- 
rians, gave rise to the practice of embalming the dead ? Give a description of the work oi 
embalming. 9. What and where were the Egyptian catacombs? Give a description ol 
them. Where is the Nile ? (See map No. 8.) 



b. c. 3623.J ANTIQUITIES 19 

are still to be seen portrayed with striking fidelity and distinctness in 
these stupendous palaces of the dead. 

10. In one painting is represented the judgment of a wicked soul, 
condemned to return to the earth in the form of a pig, after having 
been weighed in the scales before Osiris, and found wanting. It is 
placed in a boat, and, attended by two monkeys, is dismissed from 
heaven, and all communication with that delightful place cut off, by a 
man who hews away the ground behind it with an ax. The sacred 
rites of sepulture could not be conferred, even upon kings, until the 
dead had been solemnly judged by a tribunal appointed for the pur- 
pose, and declared worthy to enter the abodes of the blessed. 

11. All the ancient kings of Egypt are called in Scripture Pharaoh. 
In the time of the Pharaohs, Egypt was divided into the Thebais, or 
Upper Egypt; Middle; and Lower Egypt. Lower Egypt extended 
from the Mediterranean to the place where the Kile began to branch 
off; and Middle Egypt extended from that place to Thebes, nearly 
where the Upper portion commenced, and reached to Nubia. The 
Pyramids are all situated on the west side of the Nile, and extend in a 
direction nearly parallel to it, for about 70 miles. Their vast antiquity, 
their amazing magnitude, and the mystery which envelops their his- 
tory, render them objects of intense interest. 

12. Menes or Mizraim Founds Egypt, b. c. 3623. — After the con- 
fusion of tongues at Babel, the sons of Noah separated into different 
parts of the world. Ham had four children, three of whom settled in 
Africa. Mizraim, the second son, founded Egypt, and all historians 
agree in considering him the Menes of the Egyptian priests. He is 
supposed to have founded Memphis, by digging a new channel for the 
Nile, and laying the foundations within its ancient bed. Many of its 
ruins have served as materials for building Cairo, but a sufficient num- 
ber remain to excite our admiration of the wonderful skill of the 
Egyptians in architecture. In the 12th century, these ruins extended 
half a day's journey in every direction, but now there are only scat- 
tered fragments of idols, 40 feet high, and blocks of granite inclosed in 
rubbish, to interest the antiquary. 

Head Gen. x. 6. 



QvfMions. — 10. "What painting is described? What ceremony had to he observed with 
ref.rence to the dead? 11. What titles were given to the Egyptian kings? How was Epypt 
divided? Where are the Pyramids? What renders them objects of interest? 12. Whither 
did the sons of Noah go? Ham's children ? Mizraim? What supposition is made in con- 
nection with Misraim? What can you state of the ruins of Memphis? In which division 
of Egypt was Memphis? 



20 EGYPT. [b. c. 2080. 

13. Busiris built Thebes, the city of an hundred gates, from each of 
which issued, upon state occasions, 200 chariots and 10,000 fighting 
men. It is now called Said, and lies magnificent in ruins ; its fallen 
columns and moldering temples eminently beautiful even in the midst 
of decay. The sculptured figures which ornamented gates, and walls, 
and capitals, show the perfection of Egyptian art ; even the colors of 
the paintings in its deserted palaces are undiramed by the hand of 
time; so happily did the Egyptians stamp immortality upon their 
works. 

14. Osymandyas. — Diodorus gives a description of many beautiful 
edifices erected by this king. One was adorned with a sculptured 
representation of his expedition into Asia. Another temple contained 
a magnificent library, the oldest mentioned in history. The Egyptians 
used hieroglyphical writing, and their records were preserved not 
only by inscription upon monuments, but in books made of the leaves 
of the papyrus. This library was called " the office or treasury for 
the diseases of the soul." The life of Osymandyas was such as secured 
to him a distinguished sepulchre. It was encompassed with a circle 
of gold, 365 cubits in circumference, ornamented with figures showing 
the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies ; for so early as this tho 
Egyptians had divided the year into 12 months of 30 days each, and 
every year added 5 days to bring the sun to the equinoctial points. 
Champollion thinks the splendid ruins of the Memnonium in Thebes 
are the remains of this tomb, as the statue of Osymandyas is still to be 
seen in them, though shattered in a thousand pieces. 

15.— Uchoreus raised a very high mole to protect Memphis 
from the inundations of the Nile, and fortified the city other- 
wise in so impregnable a manner, that it was ever afterwards the key of 
that river. Moeris made the. famous lake which bears his name. The 
object of this wonderful excavation was to regulate the inundations 
of the Nile. It was joined to the river by a canal ; in its center were 
two pyramids upon which the rise of the water was marked ; when it 
rose above the usual point it flowed off into the lake, and when it did 
not reach so high, the deficiency was supplied from the lake. 

16. b. o 2080. — Some time in this century Egypt was invaded by 
people from Arabia, called Shepherd Kings. Every place yielded to 

Questions. — 13. By whom was Thebes built? How wan that city located? (See map 
No. 1.) What can you say of its ruins? 14. What account do we get of Osymandyas? 
What is hieroglyphical writing? What is papyrus? "What is said of Osymandias's sepul- 
chre? Of the division of the year? 15. What work did Uchoreus accomplish ? Moeris? 
Describe tho lake. 16. When was Egypt invaded by the Shepherd Kings? What success 
did they have t 



b. c. 1509.] MONUMENTS TO SESOSTRIS. 21 

these fierce barbarians, who, having taken Memphis and fortified Pelu- 
sium, organized the government to suit themselves, and founded On, 
or Heliopolis, the city of the Sun. Another race might have reigned 
at Thebes during the same time, for the state of Egypt was one of 
anarchy and confusion during this period. 1800 b. c. — It was in the 
days of the Hykcos, or Shepherd Kings, that Joseph was sold into 
Egypt. To connect him with the highest tribe or family, and so con- 
stitute him a governor, he was married to the daughter of Potiphera, 
priest of the Sun. 

Read Gen. xxxvii. 23-23 ; xli. 41-46 ; also 1. 22-26. 

17. b. o. 1414. — Among the ruins of Thebes is the statue of Mem. 
non, an image of the Sun-king, cut out of the solid rock. It was said to 
greet the rising of the god of day with a musical sound resembling 
the tone of a harp. This work was ascribed to Ainunoph II. Rania- 
ses Miamun was the king that so cruelly oppressed the Israelites. 
They built for him the treasure cities of Ramases and Pithom. 

Read Ex. i. 8-11. 

18. b. c. 1400.— Aniunoph III. is ths prince who it is supposed 
endured the ten plagues, and perished in the Red Sea. Diodorus 
says: " A tradition has been transmitted through the whole nation, 
that once an extraordinary ebb dried up the waters of the Red Sea, 
so that its bottom was seen, and almost immediately after a violent 
flow brought, back the waters to their accustomed channel." 

Read Ex. vii. 20, 21; viii. 6, 17, 24; ix. 6, 10, 24, 25; x. 13-15, 22, 23; xii. 29-3S, and Ex. 
xiv. 9-31 ; xix. 1, 2. 

19. Though much dispute prevails among the learned as to the 
time in which Sesostris flourished, yet the numerous monuments in- 
scribed to him prove him to have been something more than a fabulous 
personage. In the temples of southern Ipsambul, in the ruins of 
Thebes and Memphis, his statues appear stamped (Champollion asserts) 
with the reality of portraiture. In almost every temple up to the 
confines of Ethiopia, his deeds and triumphs are wrought in relief and 
painting. The greater part of the celebrated obelisks bear his record , 
one side of Cleopatra's needle is occupied with his deeds, and his 
legends clothe with interest the stupendous ruins of Luxor and Carnac 
The best authorities place him in the Nineteenth Dynasty, and date his 
reign from about 1409 b. c. 

Questions.— 16. What account can you give of Joseph ? Trace the Shepherd Kings from 
Arabia to Egypt. Where is Pelusium ? (See map No. 1.) Heliopolis? 17. What is said of 
the statue of M*mnon ? What of Ramases Miamun ? 1 8. Of Amenophis III. ? What tradi- 
tion is mentioned? 19. When did Sesostris reign ? What can you state of his monuments, 
statues, &c. ? 



22 EGYPT. [B. c. 1409 

20. His father, by the authority of an oracle, as the Egyptians say, 
formed the design of making his son a conqueror. For this purpose 
all the male children born on the same day with Sesostris were 
brought to court and educated with him. Their common exercise 
was hunting, and they were never suffered to eat till tney had run a 
raoe, either on foot or on horseback. The energies of theii bodies 
were thus developed, and the ambition to excel in courage and skill 
was constantly cherished. 

21. The enmity still prevalent against the Hykcos he turned to his 
own account, and in the lifetime of his father pursued the remnants 
of the hated race into Arabia. The success of this expedition stimu- 
lated him to still greater efforts. Libya, so celebrated for its burning 
deserts and fiery serpents, was overrun and subdued by the young 
prince and his companions. Upon the deatli of his father he entered 
upon his great work, the Conquest of the World! Before leaving 
home, he made it his care to gain the hearts of his people by his jus- 
tice and generosity, and to attach his soldiers to his person by all the 
ties of affection and interest. 

22. He divided the country into 36 districts, or nomi, and bestowed 
them upon persons of merit and fidelity. His troops, command-ed by 
1700 officers (most of whom had been educated with him), when 
drawn out in battle array, covered a space of more than 200 acres. 
His chariots and horsemen, issuing from the gates of Thebes, filled all 
the plain, and, leaving the fertile vale of the Nile, they entered upon 
the mountainous country of Ethiopia. He conquered even the 
Southern Ethiopians, and forced them to pay a tribute of ebony, 
gold, and elephants' teeth. In the Nubian temples, representations 
of his numerous victories line the walls. One of them shows the 
conqueror standing among huge logs of ebony and golden ingots, 
while a vanquished queen and her children stretch out their hands to 
him as if imploring mercy. 

23. With the aid of a fleet which he fitted out, the islands and 
cities upon the Red Sea were subdued; on the height overlooking the 
narrow strait of Babelmandedone of his columns was erected. Fol- 
lowing the track of ancient commerce, he entered Asia and subdued 



Questions. — 20. What design did the father of Sesostris have? How did he commence 
to carry out his purpose? 21. What -were the first successes of Sesostris? What great 
work did he then enter upon ? What was his first care ? 22. What division did he make ol 
the country? What army did he have? What did he accomplish in Ethiopia? What is 
Ehown in the Nubian temples? 23. What did he accomplish, aided by his fleet? What 
other conquests did he make? 



u. c. 1409.] SESOSTRIS THE CONQUEROR. 23 

the countries even beyond the Ganges. Thence it is supposed he 
marched in a westerly direction ; for history states that he left an 
Egyptian colony in Colchis, where they were long after known by their 
swarthy complexions, frizzly hair, and peculiar customs. In every 
country that he conquered, he set up pillars with this inscription: 
" Sesostris, king of kings and lord of lords, subdued this country by 
• the power of his arms." 

24. Herodotus found in Asia Minor two statues of Sesostris, one 
near Ephesus, the other on the road between Smyrna and Sardis; they 
were five palms high, armed with a javelin and bow, after the Egyptian 
manner. A line drawn from one shoulder to the other bore this in- 
scription: "This region I obtained by these my shoulders." Certain 
monuments show also that he entered Thrace, and bounded his con- 
quests by the Ganges and the Danube — but we must not forget that 
conquest was, in those early ages, but little else than a forced march 
through primitive forests, inhabited by scattered tribes, unacquainted 
with the stratagems of war, and accustomed to fly with their flocks 
and herds at the approach of an invading foe. The want of provisions 
for his array, the difficulty of the passes, and intelligence of treason in 
Egypt, induced him to return home after he had borne the sword of 
conquest up and down the world for nine years. He took no pains to 
preserve his acquisitions. True, he was laden with the spoils of the 
vanquished, and followed by a countless multitude of mourning cap- 
tives; but he left the countries he had depopulated and the cities he 
had pillaged to recover at leisure from those desolations which had 
covered his name with glory. 

25. He rewarded his officers and soldiers with a munificence truly 
royal, and employed the repose of peace in raising works calculated 
both to enrich Egypt and immortalize his own name. He raised a 
number of lofty mounds on which cities were built, where the people 
might retire with their flocks during the inundations of the Nile. He 
fortified the whole coast from Pelusium to Heliopolis, to prevent any 
future invasion of the Hyscos. He erected a temple in every city of 
Egypt, and raised gigantic statues representing himself, his wife, and 
his four sons. In all these stupendous works, captives only were em- 
ployed, and he caused to be inscribed on the temples: "No one native 



-23. What pillars did he set up ? What is the Strait of Babelmandel ? (Sec map 
No. 1.) 24. What discoveries did Herodotus make? Describe the statues. 24. How far did 
the conquests of Sesostris extend ? How do we get at that information f What was a con 
quest in those days ? How many years was he absent from Egypt ? Why did he return ? 
Where is Smyrna? 25. What is said of the rewards bestowed by Sesostris? Of the mounds 
raised by him ? Fortifications? Temples? 



24: EGYPT. [b. c. 1100 

labored hereon." The kings and chiefs of conquered nations came at 
stated times to do honor to their victor, and to pay the accustomed 
tribute. On certain occasions he is said to have unharnessed his 
horses, and, yoking kings together, made them draw his chariot. At 
length this mighty monarch lost his sight, and rather than endure the 
loneliness of old age in darkness, he put an end to his own life. 

26. b. o. 14LOO. — In this century and a great part of the next, 
occurs one of those chasms so frequent in Egyptian history. Four years 
before the close of the thirteenth century, Proteus began to reign in 
Egypt. From a custom of adorning his head with representations of 
animals, vegetables, or even burning incense, arose the fable of Protean 
forms, so often quoted among the Greeks. Homer calls him a sea-god, 
and says that, when caught by Henelaus, he turned into a lion, a ser- 
pent, a tree, &c. 

27. b. o. 1300. — Proteus received Paris and Helen when on their 
way from Sparta to Troy, and erected a temple to Venus the stranger. 
His numerous forms may signify the duplicity of his character. 
Cheops, a most wicked and oppressive monarch, built the pyramid 
which bears his name. Ten years were spent in preparing for the 
work, and twenty more in erecting it. It stands a little south of 
Cairo, and lifts its head about 45 feet higher than St. Peter's at Rome. 
On its side was an inscription which the priests told Herodotus was 
an account of $1,700,000 expended merely in furnishing the workmen 
with leeks and onions. Cephrenius was also a monster of wickedness. 
By his exactions and oppressions he incurred the hatred of his sub- 
jects, and filled Egypt with mourning. 

28. b. o. 1100. — Myoerinus, "the peaceful," was as remarkable 
for his justice and moderation, as his predecessors had been for their 
extortion and excess. He built the third pyramid. It was smaller than 
the others, but equally expensive, being faced half way up with 
Ethiopian marble. The goodness of this monarch did not exempt him 
from calamity. The death of his only darling daughter clouded his 
life with sorrow. He ordered extraordinary honors to be paid to her 
memory; exquisite odors were burned at her tomb by day, and a 

Read 1 Kings ix. 16, 24 ; and 2 Chron. viii. 11. 

Questions. — 25. What is stated about his chariot? His death? Trace his whole course, 
and mention the modern names of the countries through which he passed. 26. When did 
Proteus begin to reign ? How did the fable of the Protean form have its origin ? What did 
Homer say of Proteus ? 27. What further can you state of Proteus ? Give an account of 
Cheops. Of Cephrenius. Where was Sparta ? (See map No. 1.) Troy ? Cairo ? 28. What 
was the character of Mycerinus ? What event clouded his life with sorrow ? Give a further 
account of him. 



b C. 800. J WARS IN PALESTINE. 25 

lamp illuminated it by night. Having reigned for no great length of 
time, he was informed by an oracle that he was destined to die in six 
years. On complaining because he, a pious prince, was not allowed a 
long reign, while his father and grandfather, who had injured men 
and despised the gods, had each reigned half a century, he was told 
that his short life was the direct consequence of his piety ; for the fates 
had decreed that Egypt should be afflicted for the space of 150 years, 
and as he had not proved a minister of vengeance, he must give place 
to one less inclined to mildness and lenity. 

29. Asyohis. — This king, during a scarcity of money, enacted a law 
permitting any man to borrow money, by giving in pledge the body of 
his father; but in case he afterwards refused to pay the debt, he 
should neither be buried in the same place with his father, nor in any 
other, nor have the liberty of burying the dead bodies of any of his 
friends, who for want of the sacred rites would not be permitted to 
enter the peaceful realm of Osiris. One of his immediate successors 
was the king who gave his daughter in marriage to Solomon. 

30. b. o. lOOO. — Shishak was the Pharaoh that reigned in Egypt 
when Jeroboam fled thither to avoid the wrath of Solomon. In the 
reign of Rehoboam the same Shishak invaded Palestine, seized upon 
all the strongest cities of Judah, penetrated as far as Jerusalem, plun- 
dered " the treasures of the house of the Lord, and the king's house," 
and carried away " the shields of gold which Solomon had made." 

Zerah, king of Ethiopia and Egypt, made war upon Asa, king of 
Judah, with an army far superior to the whole number of Jews, 
women and children inclusive; but he was defeated, and obliged to 
retire in haste to his own land. 

Bead 1 Kings xi. 40; and xiv. 15, 16; also 1 Chron. xiv. 9-14. 

31. b. o. 800. — What transpired in Egypt during the ninth cen- 
tury is unknown. The next king of whom we read was Anysis, a 
blind man. Sabachus, or So, king of Ethiopia, dethroned him, and 
reigned in his stead. The kingdom thus obtained by violence was 
nevertheless governed with justice. Instead of putting criminals to 
death, he employed them in repairing public works, and in other 
menial offices serviceable to the state. He is thought to be the So 
mentioned in Scripture as entering into a league with Hoshea, king 



Questions.— 29. "What singular law did Asychis enact? What is said of one of his suc- 
cessors ? 30. Who was Shishak ? When did that event occur? What account can you give 
of Shishak? Of Zerah? Hi. Give an account of Anysis. Of Sabachus's government. 
What is supposed with refenjuoe to So? 
2 



2G EGYPT. [B.C. 700. 

of Israel. At the end of 50 years he had a dream, which the priests 
interpreted as a warning that he could no longer hold the kingdom in 
safety or happiness, upon which he voluntarily retired to his own 
country. 
Head 2 Kings xvii. 4. 

32. Sethon was both king and priest of Vulcan. He gave himself 
up to religions contemplation, and not only neglected the military 
class, but deprived them of their lands. At this they were so much 
incensed that they refused to bear arms under him, and in the midst 
of the commotion Sennacherib, king of Assyria, arrived before Pelu- 
sium with a large army. Sethon attempted to raise a body of troops 
to oppose him, but none of his soldiers would follow him. In despair 
he betook himself to his god, and while yet in the temple, praying to 
be delivered from his enemies, he fell into a deep sleep, during which 
Vulcan exhorted him to take courage, and assured him of victory. 

33. Thus sustained, he assembled about 200 shopkeepers, laborers, 
&c, and advanced to Pelusium. The next morning he found the 
Assyrians in great" disorder, preparing to fly. A prodigious number 
of rats had entered their camp during the night, and gnawed to pieces 
the quivers, bow-strings, and shield-straps. Unable to fight, they 
endeavored to make good their retreat, but Sethon, falling upon 
them, made terrible slaughter in their ranks. In memory of this re- 
markable deliverance, Sethon erected a statue of himself holding a rat 
in one hand, with these words issuing out of its mouth : 

" "Whosoever beholdeth me, let him be pious.'* 

This story is no doubt a corruption of that related in 2 Kings xix. 

34. b. o. TOO. — The invasion of the Ethiopians and other troubles 
had reduced Egypt to a deplorable state of anarchy. At length 12 of 
the principal noblemen seized upon the government, and divided it 
into 12 absolute sovereignties; and because an oracle had declared 
that the whole kingdom should fall to the lot of him who should offer 
his libation to Vulcan in a brazen bowl, they bound themselves by 
the most solemn oaths to protect each other's rights. For 15 years 
they reigned together in the utmost harmony, and, to leave a monu- 
ment of their concord to posterity, united in building a famous 
labyrinth near Lake Moeris. 

Questions.— 31. How did his reign end? 32. Who was Sethon? What was Sethon's 
course of conduct? What danger threatened him? What then occurred? 33. Give an 
account of Sethon's deliverance. 33. How did he commemorate the event? 34. What was 
the condition of Egypt seven hundred years before Christ? How had that been produced ? 
What sii miliary act was done by twelve persons ? How long did they reign ? Why did tbey 
build a mbyrinth? Where did they build it? Where was Lake Moeris? (See map No. 8.) 



b. o. 63 .] PSAMMETICHUS. 27 

35. This remarkable structure consisted of 12 separate palaces, 
stretched along in a succession of splendid apartments, spacious halls, 
and lofty terraces; adorned with statues, hieroglyphics, and every 
other appendage of Egyptian art. A vast number of intricate pas« 
sages ran around the base of the building, and around these a wall was 
thrown, leaving only one entrance to the labyrinth ; while at the other 
end stood a pyramid, containing a way leading to 12 subterraneous 
palaces, exactly corresponding to those above. The whole structure 
contained 3000 rooms; 1500 above ground and as many below. All 
the roofs and walls were of stone, adorned with sculptured figures, 
and all the halls were surrounded with pillars of white marble. Hero- 
dotus visited the upper rooms, but was not permitted to enter the 
subterranean palaces, because the bodies of the sacred crocodiles lay 
there embalmed. 

36. It happened one day, that the twelve kings were sacrificing in 
the temple of Vulcan at Memphis, and that the high priest, who dis- 
tributed the golden cups for libations, had brought with him, by some 
accident, only eleven. Psammetichus, who stood the last in order, took 
off his brazen helmet, and poured his libation out from that. This inci- 
dent occasioned great disquiet among his colleagues, and they accord- 
ingly banished him to the seacoast. After passing some years in the 
solitude of exile, Psammetichus secured the aid of a company of 
Greeks, whom adverse winds had driven on the coast. By their assist- 
ance he overcame the eleven, and became sole master of Egypt. 

37. b. o. 630. — In gratitude to his Grecian friends, he gave them lands 
and revenues, and placed children under their care to learn the Greek 
tongue. These, in process of time, formed a distinct caste, called, in 
the days of Herodotus, Interpreters. The limits of Assyrian conquest 
had never been clearly defined, and a quarrel now arose about the 
boundary of that empire, on the southwestern border. The Assyri- 
ans had taken Syria and the territory of Israel, and were waiting till 
a favorable opportunity should occur for seizing Palestine and invading 
Egypt. Some years before, Tartan had taken Ashdod, or Azotus, and 
Psammetichus set himself to recover this important post ; but owing 
to the natural strength of the fortifications and the vigorous defense 
of the garrison, the siege lasted 29 years; the longest of any recorded 



Questions.— 85. Give a description of the labyrinth. What can you state of the visit ot 
Herodotus? 36. What occurred in relation to the eleven cups? How did Psammetichus 
get to be sole master of Egypt? 37. What is said of the Interpreters? Of a boundary dis- 
pute ? What successes had the Assyrians gained ? Tartan ? What can you 6ay of the »leg« 
of Ashdod? 



23 EGYPT. |b. c. 610. 

in history ; nor does it appear that the Egyptians afterward derived 
any particular benefit from the possession of the place. 

Eead 1 Samuel v. 1 ; Is. sx. 1 ; also, Acts viil. 40. 

38. b. o. 610. — Pharaoh Necho, son of Psarameticlms, attempted 
to join the Red Sea to the Mediterranean by a canal through the 
isthmus of Suez. He persisted till 120,000 men had perished in the 
work, and then abandoned it. In another enterprise he was more 
successful. Having taken some Phenician navigators into his service, 
he instructed them to sail around Africa, and solve the great mystery 
of the form and termination of that continent. In their small row- 
galleys, well equipped, they departed, and at the end of three years 
returned in safety. They stated, that passing down the Red Sea, they 
entered the Southern Ocean ; that at the approach of Autumn they 
landed on the coast and planted corn ; when this was ripe they cut it 
down, and again departed. In passing the southern point of Africa, 
they were surprised to observe the sun upon their right hand:* then 
turning to the north, they continued their course; the third year they 
doubled the columns of Hercules, and returned to Egypt through the 
Mediterranean. 

39. Nabopolassar, the Chaldean, having usurped the Assyrian 
throne, became so powerful as to rouse all the ancient enmity of the 
Egyptians. Necho undertook an expedition against him. Josiah, 
king of Judah, hearing that he intended to pass through Palestine, 
assembled all his forces and stationed himself in the vale of Megiddo, 
to oppose his progress. Necho sent a herald to inform him that he 
meant the Jews no harm, but was commissioned by God against 
another nation. Josiah would not listen to this remonstrance ; he 
gave battle, was defeated, and received a wound of which he died. 
The victorious Necho continued his march to the Euphrates, defeated 
the Assyrians, and took the city of Carchemish. On his way home he 
stopped at Jerusalem, levied a tribute upon the Jews, placed Johoia- 
kim upon the throne, and carried Jehoahaz captive into Egypt. Soon 
after the Babylonians dispossessed the Egyptians of all they had 
gained, retook Carchemish, and Necho died. 

Kead 2 Kings xxiii. 29, 30, 33-35 ; also, 2 Chron. xxxv. 20-24 ; and xxxvi. 34. 

* Herodotus doubted the truth of this story, from the fact of their seeing the sun in the 
north, but to us this is its greatest confirmation. 

Questions.— 37. Where was Ashdod ? (Map No. 3.) 38. Who was Pharaoh Necho ? In 
what great enterprise did he fail ? In what was he successful ? Give an account of the 
successful enterprise. Where are the columns of Hercules? Arts. One is at Gibraltar, 
and the other opposite, on the African coast, at the western extremity of the Mediterranean. 
39. "Who was Nabopolassar ? What expedition did Necho undertake? By whom was he 
opposed? What followed? What successes did Necho afterward gain? After what 
events did he die ? 



b. c. 594. J NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 29 

40. b. o. 594. — In the reign of Psammis, son of Necho, the Eleans, 
having rearranged the Olympic games, sent a splendid embassy into 
Egypt, to give an account of the regulations they had established ; for 
they were desirous of gaining the approbation of a people then con- 
sidered the wisest in the world. When the delegation arrived, Psam- 
mis assembled the priests and sages to listen to the communication of 
the distinguished strangers. After mature deliberation, the grave 
council remarked, that the persons appointed to award the prizes, being 
Greeks, could scarcely be impartial in their decisions; upon which 
the deputies returned home, satisfied, no doubt, with going abroad after 
praise. 

41. Apries, the son of Psammis, is called in Scripture Pharaoh 
Hophrah. In the first years of his reign he invaded Cyprus, took the 
city of Sidon, and made himself master of Phenicia. Inflated with 
pride, he boasted that not even the gods could dethrone him. Zede- 
kiah king of Judah, unmoved by the " woe " of Isaiah, made an 
alliance with Apries, and, relying upon his assistance, broke his oath of 
allegiance to the king of Babylon. In the war that followed, Zede- 
kiah found that the Egyptian help was "a broken reed;" for though 
the Chaldeans departed once from Jerusalem for fear of Pharaoh's 
host, yet in the end the Egyptians abandoned their allies, and left 
them to meet the wrath of Nebuchadnezzar alone. 

42. Some years after, the chastising rod fell heavily upon Apries. 
A large army which he had sent into Lybia having been destroyed, as 
was supposed, by his connivance, a great part of his subjects rebelled. 
Apries sent one Amasis, a particular friend, to bring back his subjects 
to a sense of their duty; but the moment Amasis began to speak, the 
rebels fixed a helmet upon his head, and proclaimed him king. Ama- 
sis accepted the honor, and became leader of the mutineers. Apries, 
greatly exasperated at the defection of his favorite, sent a nobleman 
with orders to bring Amasis, alive or dead, before him. The messen- 
ger, unable to seize an individual protected by an infuriated mob, 
returned without his captive; and his master, in a rage, ordered his 
nose and ears to be cut off. This piece of wanton cruelty alienated 
the affections of his people, so that the revolt became general, and he 
was obliged to abdicate his throne in favor of Amasis. The new king 

Questions. — 40. Who was Psammis? What embassy was sent by the Eleans during his 
reign? Give an account of the ceremony that took place. 41. Who was Apries? What 
is he called in Scripture? What events took place in the first years of his reign ? What 
influence did his success exert upon his character? Who formed an alliance with him? 
In what manner did he treat his allies? 42. What causes led to the overthrow of Apries? 
Who then was king? How did Amasis then treat Apries? 



30 EGYPT. [b. c. 525. 

confined Apries in one of his palaces, and treated him with great 
respect ; but the people were implacable, and the tyrant, being 
delivered "into the hands of those who sought his life,'' was 
strangled. 

Read Ez. xxviii. 21, 22 ; also Ez. xxix. 8, and xvii. 12-17 ; Is. xxxi. 1-3, and Jer. xxxvii. 7, 8, 
and xliv. 30, and Ez. xxix. 2, 3, 4, 7. 

43. While these troubles had been going on, Nebuchadnezzar 
invaded Egypt, and subdued the country as far as Syene. He made 
horrible devastation wherever he came, killed great numbers of the 
inhabitants, loaded his army with treasure, and, having made Amasis 
his deputy, returned to Babylon. During the reign of Amasis, Egypt 
is said to have been perfectly happy, and to have contained 20,000 
populous cities. He espoused a Grecian female, and displayed his 
attachment to the Greeks by permitting them to settle on his coasts, 
and by contributing liberally to the rebuilding of the temple at 
Delphi. Solon visited Egypt during his reign. 

44. The prosperity of Amasis was at last disturbed by the prepara- 
tions which Cambyses, king of Persia, made to attack his kingdom. 
The Persian monarch had demanded the daughter of Amasis in mar- 
riage ; but Amasis attempted to deceive him by sending him the daugh- 
ter of Apries. The lady disclosed the imposition to Cambyses, and he, 
in great wrath, determined to march against Egypt. Amasis, how- 
ever, died in season to escape the perils that threatened him, and the 
whole fury of the storm fell upon his son, Psammenitus. 

45. Psammenitus was scarcely seated on the throne when Cam- 
byses arrived before Pelusium, with all his forces. Pelusium was taken, 
a great battle fought near Memphis, Psammenitus put to death, and 
Egypt became a Persian province, b. o. 525. Subsequently this 
country fell under the power of the Macedonians, Romans, Saracens, 
Mamelukes, and, lastly, of the Turks; thus verifying the words of 



Questions. — 42. What further can yon state of Apries? 43. Who inyaded Egypt at 
that time? How far did Nebuchadnezzar subdue tho country? Where is Syene? (See 
map No. 8.) What is said of Nebuchadnezzar's devastation? Whom did he make his 
deputy? What is said of the condition of Egypt during the reign of Amasis? Whom did 
he marry ? How did he manifest his favor to the Greeks? 44. How was the prosperity 
©f Amasis disturbed? Give the story of the deception. Who wa3 Psammenitus? 
45. What battles were fought soon after Psamnenitus ascended the throne? What 
became of him? When did Egypt become a Persian province? Under what powers 
did it afterward fall ? What prophecy was verified ? 



B.C. 525.] FALLOFEGYPT. 31 

prophesy, "Egypt shall be the basest of kingdoms," and, "there shall 
be no more a prince of the laud of Egypt." 

Bead Ez. xxix. 10, 15, and xxx. C, 1 8 

Note.— The history of Egypt written by Manetho, a priest of Sebennytus, (a town on 
the Delta), which was founded on the official archives preserved in the temples, has been 
lost. A few fragments only remain together with a list of all the kings who reigned in 
Egypt down to the time of Alexander. This list Menetho divided in dynasties, and 
recorded for the most part the names of the kings, the length of each reign, and the 
duration of the dynasty. The following extract is from Mariette whose researches in th« 
Museum at Cairo deservedly places his name among the foremost of Egyptologers : — 

" Every one must be struck with the enormous total of years (b. c. 5004-332) to which 
the duration of the dynasties of Manetho amounts. The lists of the Egyptian px'iest, in 
fact, carry us back to times which are mythical among all other people, but which are 
in Egypt certainly already historical. Embarx-assed by this fact, and, moreover, unable 
in auy way to cast a doubt on the authenticity and veracity of Menetho, some modern 
authors have supposed that Egypt had been at some periods of its history divided into 
more than one kingdom, and that Menetho had represented, as successive, dynasties which 
were already contemporaneous. According to them, the fifth dynasty, for example, was 
reigning at Elephantine at the same time that the sixth was enthroned at Memphis. 
The convenience of this system, for certain combinations fixed at leisure and in view of 
preconceived ideas, need not be pointed out. By reconciling some dates and correcting 
others, we may, by an ingenious and even scientific arrangement of dynasties, contract 
almost as we wish the lengthy of the lists of Menetho. It is in this way, that some 
place the foundation of the Egyptian monarchy in the year 5004 before oxxr era, other 
authors, such as Bunsen, place the same event only as far back as the yeaa 3623. 

On which side lies the trxxth ? The larger amount of study given to the subject, the 
greater is the difficulty of answering. The greatest of all obstacles in the way of 
establishing a regxxlar Egyptian chronology is the fact that the Egptians themselves 
never had any chronology at all. The use of a fixed era was unknown, and it has never 
yet been proved that they had any other reckoning than the years of the reigning 
monarch. Now these years themselves had no fixed starting point, for sometimes they 
began from the coxnmencexxxent of the year in which the preceeding king died, and 
sometixxxe/s from the day of the coronation of the king. However precise these calcxxla- 
tions may appear to be, modern science must always fall iu its attexxxpts to restore what 
the Egyptians never possessed. In the midst of these doubts, the course which seems 
the most prudent and scientific, the least likely to be a departure froxxx truth, is to accept 
as they stand in the list of Manetho. It would certainly be contrary to established facts 
to pretend that fronx the days of Menes to the Greek conqxxest Egypt always formed 
one united kixigdonx ; and it is possible that xxnexpected discoveries may one day provu 
that throughout nearly the whole dxxration of this vast empire there were even more 
collateral dynasties than the partisans of that system now contend for. But everything 
shows xxs that the work of elimination has already been performed on the lists of 
Manetho, in the state in which they have reached us. The contemporaneous dynasties 
Manetho has thrown oxxt, and admitted those only whom he regarded as legitimate, and 
his lists contain no others. The scholars who have attempted to compress the dates 
given by Manetho have never yet been able to produce one single monument to prove 
that two dynasties named in his lists as sxxccessive were contemporaneoxxs. On the 
contrary, thex-e are sxxperabundant monxxixxental proofs collected by very many Egypto- 
logers, to convince us that all the royal races enumerated by the Sebennytic priest 
(thirty-one in all) occupied the throne in succession." 



PERSIA 



SECTION" III. 

1. The monarchical form of government follows most naturally 
upon that state of society in which a strong-minded, ambitious man, 
from being head of a family, comes to be chief of his relatives, and 
leader of a tribe. Accordingly we find that all the early governments 
were monarchies. Among the Persians the prince was styled, " The 
great king, the king of kings." The crown was hereditary, but sub- 
ject to the will of the father rather than to the law of primogeniture. 

2. The young heir was never committed entirely to the care of a 
nurse, but persons of distinguished merit were chosen to take charge 
of his health and manners. At seven he was put into the hands of 
competent masters, who taught him to ride on horseback, to draw 
the bow, throw the lance, and engage in other athletic exercises. At 
14, four of the wisest and most virtuous men in the state were 
appointed his preceptors. They taught him the religion of Zoroaster, 
the principles of government, the administration of justice, and the 
bearing of a king. When he ascended the throne, seven counselers, 
chief lords of the nation, were appointed to assist him by their abili- 
ties and experience. Public registers were kept, in which all the 
edicts of the king were recorded, together with all the privileges 
granted to the people, or benefits conferred upon individuals, for serv 
ing the state. 

Read Esther i. 14 ; and ii. 23 ; also vi. 1. For king, read Ezra vii. 12. 

3. The Persians thought it reasonable to put the good as well as 
she evil into the scales of justice, so that one single crime should not 
destroy the reputation of a man habitually just and upright. No 
person was condemned without being brought face to face with his 
accuser, and having time allowed him to gain an impartial decision. 
If the accused proved innocent, the accuser suffered the punishment 
in his stead. The empire was divided into 127 provinces, the govern- 

Peesia.— Question*.— \. "Where is Persia ? (See map No. 3.) Of what is a monarchical form 
of government the natural result? What do we accordingly find ? What title did the Per- 
sians give to their prince? 2. What was the custom with reference to the prince? With 
reference to the public registers ? 3. Wifh reference to persons accused of crime f 



ARTS, REVENUES, AND RELIGION. 33 

ors of which were called satraps, who inflicted capital punishment ir< 
the same manner as kings. Of these satraps the king took cognizance 
in person ; and an officer of his household was appointed, to repeat to 
him every morning when he waked, " Pwise, sir, and think of dis- 
charging the duties for which Oromasdes has placed you upon the 
throne." 

4. The Medes and Persians were originally a pastoral people, but 
after the establishment of their monarchy, they paid great attention 
to agriculture and manufactures. Their fields produced every neces- 
uary, and their gardens abounded in the choicest fruits and sweetest 
flowers. Median vestments, woven of fine wool, and dyed in the 
gayest colors, were held in the highest esteem, even by the Greeks. 
In order to receive certain intelligence of the affairs of the provinces, 
a high road, on which distances were regularly marked, connected 
the western coast with the seat of government ; and along this road 
couriers, trained to extraordinary speed, traveled without intermission 
in the king's name. 

5. The revenues of the Persian king consisted partly of moneys 
(chiefly gold raised by taxes), and partly of an annual levy of corn, 
horses, camels, or whatever the province afforded. In the days of 
Persian power, the satrap of Armenia sent regularly every year 20,000 
young colts to the king. Certain cantons were set apart for furnishing 
the queen's wardrobe, and were named according to the article they 
supplied : one being called the queen's girdle ; another, the queen's 
vail, &c. The Persians served in the army from the age of 20 to 50, 
and it was esteemed a crime to desire exemption from military duty. 
The king's guard consisted of a body of 10,000 men, called the Immor- 
tal Band, because when one died his place was immediately filled by 
another noble, so that the number should be always complete. 

Bead Esther vii. 10 ; and i. 1, 6; and viii 8, 10. 

6. The Persians adored the Sun, and bowed with their faces to the 
east, with reverential delight, when he appeared above the horizon. 
A splendid chariot was dedicated to him ; and the Steed of the Sun, 
extravagantly caparisoned, formed an important part of every grand 
procession. As an emanation from the god of day, or as an emblem 
of the deity, they paid particular honors to fire, always invoking it 

Questions.— -3. Of Satraps ? 4. What is said in relation to the early occupations of tho 
Medes and Persians? What method of conveying intelligence was used ? b. Of what did 
the Persian king's revenues consist? What is said of the composition of the Persian army ? 
Of the king's guard? 6. What is said of the Persians' adoration of the sun? Their 
adoration of fire ? 
2* 



34 PERSIA. 

first in their sacrifices. The Sacred Fire was intrusted to the keeping 
of the Magi, who were originally one of the seven Median tribes. The 
priesthood descended from father to son, and no stranger could be 
instructed in the mysteries of their religion without the king's per- 
mission. They erected neither statues, temples, nor altars to their 
gods, but offered their sacrifices in the open air, on hill-tops, or " in 
high places." 

7. Zoroaster is generally believed to have been the founder of the 
sect called the Magi, in the time of Cyrus the Great. He first made 
his appearance at Xis, a town of Media, and improving upon the ancient 
doctrines of the Magian tribe, brought their religious tenets into a 
more consistent form. He erected a temple where he kept a fire, 
which he said came directly from heaven. This was distributed through 
the kingdom, and maintained by the priests with the greatest care. 
They watched it day and night, fed it with wood stripped of the bark, 
and never blowed it with their breath for fear of polluting it. Zoro- 
aster taught that there are two grand principles: the one, the cause 
of all good ; the other, the cause of all evil ; the former, represented 
by light ; the latter, by darkness. 

8. The good spirit he called Oromasdes, and the evil, Ahrimanes. 
When the Persians besought blessings for themselves, they presented 
their petitions to Oromasdes; when they invoked evil upon their ene- 
mies, they addressed Arimanius. Some held that both these gods 
were eternal ; others, that only the benevolent being was eternal, and 
the malevolent created ; but all agreed that there would be a continual 
strife between the two till the end of time, and then, a final restitution 
of all things being made, Oromasdes would reign in an elysium with 
all the good, and Ahrimanes be confined to a world of darkness, with 
all the evil who had followed his counsels on earth. 

9. Polygamy prevailed among the Persians. The king had a sera- 
glio, and the nobles followed his example. But though the women 
were guarded with the most jealous care, shut up in separate apart- 
ments at home, and never suffered to go abroad without being closely 
vailed, yet the virtue of chastity was very rare. To recount the 
intrigues of the Persian court would disgrace the pages of history. 
They considered the burning of the dead as a great indignity. It was 
their custom to wrap the body in wax, and lay it in a sepulchre; but 

Questions.— 6. Of the succession of the priesthood? How were the sacrifices offered ? 

7. What is believed with reference to Zoroaster? What did he do? What did he teach? 

8. What did he call the good spirit? The evil spirit? How did the Persians discrimi- 
nate in their petitions? What opinions were held in reference to the two spirits or gods J 
ii. What is said in reference to polygamy t Burning the dead? 



B.C. 710.] MEDIAN DYNASTY FOUNDED. 35 

Cyrus commanded his children to restore his body to the earth from 
which it was formed. 

10. b. 0. 2300. — El am, son of Shem, and brother of that Asshur 
who founded Nineveh, is supposed to have been the progenitor of the 
Persians, whence they were called Elamites. b. c. 2000 — In the time 
of Abraham, Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. assisted by three confederate 
princes, made war upon the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, subdued 
them, and made them tributary 12 years. No further mention is made 
of Persia till it comes into notice as a province of Media, 1400 years 
after. 

Read Gen. x. 22 ; Is. xxi. 2, and Acts ii. 9 ; also Gen. xiv. 1-15. 

11. b. c. 830* — It is interesting to trace the progress of a people 
from a rude and savage state, in which they subsist upon the spontaneous 
fruits of the ground, through all the various stages of civilization, till 
they gain a name and a place among the nations of the earth. In 
the history of Assyria, we have seen that Arbaces, satrap of Media, 
was one of the conspirators who dismembered the first Assyrian em- 
pire. The Medes then existed in separate tribes, and if Arbaces 
incorporated them with the second Assyrian empire, no mention of it 
is made in history. Some time after, Dejoces, a judge of great probity, 
became so distinguished in his own district, that people came from 
a distance to appeal to his judgment. Encouraged by his popularity, 
he formed the design of being king, and pretending disgust with the 
fatigues of office, retired from business. 

12. Lawlessness and iniquity thereupon increased, until, an assembly 
of the Medes being summoned, the friends of Dejoces represented that 
the only means of curing these disorders would be to elect a king. 
This opinion was generally approved, and then they unanimously 
agreed that there was not in all Media a man so capable of holding 
the reins of government as Dejoces. He was accordingly elected 
their king, b. c. 708. When Dejoces ascended the throne, he deter- 
mined to surround himself with all those external marks of dignity 
calculated to inspire awe and command respect. He obliged his 
people to build him a magnificent palace, and chose the noblest of his 
subjects for his body-guard. The city of Ecbatana, of which his 
palace was the center, and chief ornament, is thus described by Hero- 
dotus : 

Questions. — 10. What is said of Elam ? What is known of Persia during the three fol- 
lowing centuries? What took place during the time of Abraham ? In what century did 
that take place? When is Persia again noticed ? 11. Who was Arbaces? What is said of 
Dejoces as a judge? 12. How did he manage to be made king? When was he elected? 
What did he then determine upon? What did he compel his people to do ? 



36 PERSIA. [B. a 633. 

13. "The Medes, in obedience to their king s command, built those 
spacious and massy fortifications now called Ecbatana, circle within 
circle, according to the following plan : Each innei circle overtops its 
outer neighbor, by the height of the battlements alone. This was 
effected partly by the nature of the ground, a conical hill, and partly 
by the building itself. The number of circles was seven. The cir- 
cumference of the outermost wall, is nearly the same as that of Athens. 
The battlements of the first circle are white ; of the second, black ; 
of the third, scarlet ; of the fourth, azure ; of the fifth, orange ; all 
colored with the most brilliant paints. But the battlements of the 
sixth are silvered over, and the seventh shines with gold." 

14. b. o. 655. — Dejoces spent most of his time in polishing and 
refining his subjects. He kept himself secluded from public view, and 
established the most severe etiquette in the palace. No courtier was 
allowed to laugh or spit in his presence, and all oflficers of state ap- 
proached him with the greatest ceremony. He reigned 53 years. 
b. c. 653. — Phraortes, son of Dejoces, then ascended the throne. He 
was ambitious of extending his dominions, and succeeded so far as to 
bring the barbarous tribes of the Persians into subjection, and, having 
enlisted the vanquished soldiers into his army, pushed his conquests 
into Upper Asia. 

15. The Assyrians still considered the Medians as a tributary people, 
and Nabuchadnezzar, their king, being engaged in a war, summoned 
Phraortes to assist him with troops. Phraortes treated the demand 
with contempt ; and Nabuchadnezzar, greatly enraged, swore " by his 
throne and his reign, 1 ' that he would sweep the Medes from the earth 
with the "besom of destruction." A battle was fought between the 
Assyrians and Medes, which proved fatal to Phraortes. He sought 
safety in flight. Nabuchadnezzar pursued his course, penetrated into 
Media, took the beautiful city of Ecbatana, gave it up to pillage, and 
stripped it of all its ornaments. He then hunted Phraortes like a hart 
in the mountains, and, having taken him prisoner, caused him to be 
set up as a target for his bowmen, in which cruel manner he expired. 

16. b. c. 633. Cyaxaees. — This prince succeeded to the throne of 
Media, filled with a determination to avenge his father's death, and 

Questions.— 13. Describe Ecbatana. Where was Ecbatana? (See map No. 1.) What 
is it now called? Ans. Hamadan. What is shown there? Ans. The tombs of Mordecai 
and Esther. What city is now near where Ecbatana stood? Ans. Ispahan. 14. How 
long did Dejoces reign? What is said of his course as king? By whom was he suc- 
ceeded? When did Phraortes become king? Where did he go ? 15. What quarrel did he 
have? With what result ? Relate the manner of Phraortes's death. 16. Who was Cyax- 
ures? 



B. c. G53.] EFFECTS OF AN ECLIPSE. 37 

repay the injury done to Ecbatana. Accordingly, having made th6 
requisite preparations, he invaded Assyria. He was victorious in the 
first engagement, and was pressing on to attack Nineveh, when he 
was called home to repel the Scythians, a nomadic horde, who, pour- 
ing down from their native wilds, were now passing through Media. 
He hastened to meet them, but met them to his cost. The Scythians 
defeated him ; and, preferring Media to their own country, concluded 
to settle there. For 23 years these barbarians maintained their posi- 
tion, notwithstanding all the efforts of Cyaxares to dislodge thein. 
They still adhered to their predatory habits ; but though they wandered 
to neighboring countries for pasturage or pillage, they always returned 
to Media as their home. 

17. The Medes, at length, worn out with the enormities of their 
unwelcome guests, resorted to a stratagem to free themselves. A 
general feast was proclaimed throughout Media, to which each master 
of a family invited as many Scythians as he could entertain. The 
evening passed in festivity, and the barbarians were plied with wine 
till they sunk into the deep and helpless sleep of intoxication. The 
massacre then commenced, and so faithfully did the Medes carry out 
the intention of their king, that most of their tormentors never waked 
again. The few remaining Scythians fled to the king of Lydia, who 
received them kindly, and espoused their quarrel. This of course 
gave rise to a war between the Lydians and Medes. 

18. After several years spent in mutual hostilities, the affair termi- 
nated in a singular manner. Great preparations had been made for a 
general battle, but just as the two armies closed in the fight, an eclipse 
of the sun spread darkness over the scene. The furious combatants 
paused in the heat of the onset, and gazed in mute terror at the heav- 
ens. A dark pall seemed to be hung over the sun, to signify the dis- 
pleasure of the gods. Both Lydians and Medes, ignorant of the true 
cause of the phenomenon, and trembling at the fear of speedy judg- 
ments, hastened to ratify a peace. An alliance was formed between 
the contending parties, the daughter of the Lydian king was affianced 
to Astyages, son of Cyaxares, and the two monarchs, to render the 
contract binding, opened a vein in their arms and licked each other's 
blood. 



Questions.— 16. Upon what did he determine? How much did he accomplish? How was 
he diverted from his purpose ? What then occurred ? What conclusion did the Scythians 
then come to? How long did they remain in Media? 17. How did the Medes at last get rid 
of them? How was a war between the Lydians and Medes caused? 18. How did the 
Uioon affect the fortunes of Cyaxares ? 



3S TERSIA. [b. c. 593. 

19. Cyaxares, thus relieved from his Scythian foes, returned to hig 
favorite project of humbling Nineveh. Nabopolassar, general of the 
Babylonian army, disgusted with the weak rule of Saracus, joined him 
in besieging this great city. In this siege were fulfilled the terrible 
denunciations uttered by N"ahum against the " bloody city," whose 
oppressions had crushed the people of God for so many years. Asty- 
ages, son of Cyaxares, was married to the sister of Croesus, king of 
Lydia, according to the contract made during the eclipse. As au 
oracle had declared that his grandson should be greater than he, he 
married his only child, Mandane, to Cambyses, a needy Persian prince, 
hoping thereby to defeat the will of the gods. 

Read the 2d chapter of Nahum. 

20. b.c. 393. — In the year 593 b. c, Astyages had a son born, 
whom he named after his father, Cyaxares. Cyrus, son of his daughter 
Mandane, was born one year after, and the history of these two 
princes will be given together. The Persians at this time consisted of 
twelve tribes, numbering about 20,000 men, and inhabiting a small 
province, in what is now called Persia. By the wisdom and valor of 
Cyrus, the name and dominion of Persia afterward extended from 
the Indus to the Tigris, east and west, and from the Caspian Sea to 
the Ocean, north and south. 

21. Cyrus's Youth. — The system of education w r hieh we have 
previously delineated was rigidly adhered to in the youth of Cyrus. 
The only food allowed him and his companions was bread, cresses, and 
water. They were sent to school to learn virtue and justice, just as 
boys go now to learn the sciences. Speaking the truth was strenuously 
insisted upon, but the crime most severely punished in them was 
ingratitude. When Cyrus was twelve years old, his mother took him 
into Media to see his grandfather. The Persians at this time were far 
inferior to the Medes in refinement, and Cyrus beheld with astonish- 
ment the shining battlements of Ecbatana, and the magnificent palace 
of the king. 

22. The ancients, to set off the beauty of the face, used to form 

Questions. — 19. "What was his next movement ? Who was Nabopolassar ? What can 
you say of the siege of Nineveh? "What is ancient Scythia now called? Ans. Tartary. 
How many children did Astyages have? Ans. It is supposed he had three— Amyet, wife 
of Nebuchadnezzar, and mother of Evil-Merodach ; Mandane, mother of Cyrus; and Cyax- 
ares 1L The story of the oracle is not geuerally believed. 20. When was Cyaxares II. 
born? When Cyrus? Of how many tribes did the Persians then consist? How many 
men ? "What country did they occupy ? How was the name and dominion of Persia after- 
ward extended ? 21. What system was adopted in educating Cyrus? How did the Per- 
sians then compare with the Medes in refinement ? 22. How did the ancients paint them 
selves? 



b. c. 583.] EDUCATION OF CYRUS. 39 

the eyebrows into perfect arches by coloring them black. They 
tinged the lashes likewise with a drug of the same hue, which also pos- 
sessed an astringent quality, and, by drawing up the lid, made the eye 
appear larger and more brilliant. When Cyrus saw Astyages painted 
in this manner, with his purple coat, necklaces, and other ornaments, 
he went up and embraced him; then, looking at him attentively, he 
exclaimed, " O, mother, how handsome is my grandfather !" Astyages, 
pleased with the simplicity of the child, spared no pains to interest and 
amuse him. He was taught to ride, permitted to hunt in the park 
with the nobles, and magnificent entertainments were prepared for 
him ; but though Cyrus loved his exercises on horseback exceedingly, 
he looked with contempt upon the luxuries of the table, observing, 
that " the Persians, instead of going such a round-about way to satisfy 
their hunger, found that a little bread and cresses would answer the 
same purpose." 

23. Perceiving that Astyages treated his cup-bearer with great 
favor, Cyrus begged the honor of being permitted to serve the wine. 
This being granted, he presented the goblet with such dignity and 
grace, that all present were charmed with his behavior. Astyages in- 
quired why he omitted the important ceremony of tasting (for it was 
the duty of the cup-bearer to pour some of the liquor into his hand, 
and taste it before presenting it to the king); " because," said Cyrus, 
"I thought there was poison in the wine, for not long ago, at an en- 
tertainment you gave to the lords of your court, after the guests had 
drunk a little of it, I perceived that their heads were all turned ; they 
talked they knew not what, then fell to singing very ridiculously, and 
you yourself seemed to have forgotten that you were a king, and that 
they were your subjects." History is silent with respect to the effect 
of this temperance lecture. When Mandane was preparing to return 
home, Astyages requested that his grandson might stay with him ; 
and Cyrus, expressing a desire to perfect himself in the art of riding, 
was permitted to remain there several years. 

24. b. c. 583. Cyrus's First Expedition - . — When Cyrus was about 
sixteen years old, Evil-Merodach, prince of Assyria, was married ; and, 
to celebrate his nuptials, made a great hunting match on the borders 
of Media. All the nobles of his court attended him, together with a 
body of light-armed foot, to rouse the beasts from their thickets ; but 



QnestioTis.— -22. What is said of the meeting between Cyrus and Astyages ? 23. Eelntt 
the circumstances in relation to the serving of the wine by Cyrus. 24. Who was Evil- 
Merodach ? (See also Assyria, 27th paragraph.) 



40 PERSIA. [B. c. 500. 

when he arrived in sight of the Median garrisons, he thought it would 
he a greater exploit to plunder them, than to carry home the antlers 
of stags, or the skins of bears and lions. Notice being given to Asty- 
ages that the enemy were in the country, he speedily gathered toge- 
ther what forces lie could, and marched to meet them. 

25. On this occasion, Cyrus, completely clad in a new suit of 
armor which his grandfather had caused to be made for him, mounted 
his horse, and followed the troops. Astyages wondered by whose 
command he came, but permitted him to remain ; and Cyrus, perceiv- 
ing a body of plunderers making off with their booty, spurred upon 
them with his uncle, Cyaxares, and put them to flight. After the 
enemy were completely routed, he would not retire with the rest, but 
galloped round the deserted field, viewing the slain, till he was almost 
dragged away by those sent for him. His praise was then in every 
mouth, and to him was ascribed all the glory of the action. 

26. b. o. 582. — Cyrus Returns Home. — Cambyses, hearing of his 
son's exploit, sent for him home, that he might complete his education 
according to the institutions of Persia. Astyages, having presented 
him with horses, and whatever else he delighted in, sent him away. 
Great multitudes attended him part of the way on horseback, boys, 
youth, and men. They shed many tears at parting, and Cyrus pre- 
sented to his companions all those little gifts which he had received 
from Astyages, and at last, taking off his Median robe, he gave it to 
Araspes, a youth whom he loved most tenderly. Astyages never saw 
him again, for Cyrus remained in Persia till his grandfather died, and 
his uncle, Cyaxares, began to reign. 

27. b. c. 560. — Nereglissar, king of Assyria, having overthrown 
many of the neighboring nations, considered the Medes as the only 
obstacle to his universal dominion. Being of a warlike disposition, he 
summoned all his subjects to take up arms, and sending messengers to 
Croesus, king of Lydia, and other sovereigns, representing the rising 
power of the Medes in the most odious light, he entreated them to 
unite with him in overthrowing them. Cyaxares, on his part, sent 
embassadors to all his friends for speedy help, and entreated his bro- 
ther-in-law, Cambyses, to dispatch Cyrus to his assistance, with all 
the forces he could muster. 

28. Cyrus's Second Expedition. — Cambyses, having chosen 

Questions.— 24. How was a battle between him and Astyages Drought abont ? 25. What 
account can you give of the battle ? 26. Give an account of Cyrus's return home. 27. Who 
was Nereglissar? Why did he wish to overthrow the Medes? What defensive measurea 
did Cyaxares adopt ? 28. How did Cambyses respond ? 



B.C. 560.] WAR WITH ASSYRIA. £1 

10,000 archers, 10,000 targeteers, and 10,000 slingers, submitted them 
to the discipline of his son for a time; and, when all was ready, set off 
with him for the borders of Media. By the way, he discoursed with 
him upon the business of an officer, the care of supplies, the manner 
of encampment, and the necessity of inspiring his soldiers with confi- 
dence in his abilities. "But what shall a man do," said Cyrus, "to 
appear more skillful and expert than others ?" — " He must really be so," 
replied Cambyses; "and in order to be so, he must apply himself 
closely, and study diligently what the most able and experienced have 
said, and, above all, he must have recourse to the protection of the 
gods, from whom alone we derive all our wisdom and all our success." 

29. Discoursing in this manner, they arrived upon the confines of 
the two kingdoms, where they made their supplications to the gods, 
and having embraced each other, the father returned to Persia, and 
Cyrus marched on into Media to Cyaxares. While the two princes 
were conferring together upon the discipline of their forces, and the 
probable number of allies they could bring into the field, embassadors 
arrived from the king of India, to inquire into the cause of the quarrel 
between the Medes and Assyrians. They said they were commanded 
to proceed thence to the court of Babylon, and make the same demand 
of Nereglissar, and that their master had determined to espouse the 
cause of the injured. Cyaxares then said, "You hear me declare that 
we have done no injury to the Assyrians, and if he declares that we 
have, we choose the king of India himself to be our judge.' 1 With 
this answer the embassadors departed. 

30. Both parties were employed three years in forming alliances, 
and making preparations for war. When Cyrus had all things in 
readiness, he proposed to lead his army into Assyria, telling his uncle 
that he thought it better for the troops to eat up the enemy's country 
than their own, and that so bold a step would inspire them with 
valor. This course was determined upon, and the troops being drawn 
up in order of march, Cyrus invoked the wisdom and favor of the 
gods, beseeching them to smile upon the expedition in which they 
were engaged. When they reached the confines of Assyria, Cyrus 
again drew up his army, and paid homage to the gods of the country 
upon which they had entered, and then dividing his forces into differ- 
ent detachments, he sent them out different ways to plunder the vil- 
lages of the enemy. 

Questions. — 2S. Eelate the conversation between him and Cyrus. 29. How did the 
king of India undertake to interfere? What reply did Cyaxares make? 30. What bold 
course was determined upon ? 



42 PERSIA. [b. c. 560. 

31. Cyrus's First Battle.— The nex v day they came in sight of tin 
enemy, encamped in the open country, and intrenched with a deep 
ditch. Cyrus, beholding the multitudes which filled the plain, was 
glad to avail himself of several hills to conceal the small number of 
his troops. The next morning the Assyrians moved out of their in- 
trenchments, and before the Persians had time to come up, greeted 
them with a hail-storm of arrows, stones, and javelins; bat when the 
battle was joined, the superiority of Cyrus's men became evident. 
They broke the Assyrian and Lydian battalions, and the Median 
cavalry coming up at the same moment, the enemy thought only of 
making good their retreat. The panic became general, Croesus retired, 
the other allies followed his example, and Nereglissar was slain. 

32. Cyrus pursues the Fugitives. — Cyrus, perceiving that without 
the destruction of the allies, the victory would not be complete, thought 
best to pursue them that night; but to this Cyaxares was exceed- 
ingly averse, being desirous to enjoy the victory, and afraid of incur- 
ring any further fatigue. However, after much solicitation, he gave 
Cyrus permission to take as many of the Median cavalry as would be 
willing^ to follow him. A sufficient number were found not only wil- 
ling, but eager to engage in the pursuit, and after hasty refreshments 
they set off at full speed. Toward morning they overtook the 
enemy, put them to a final rout, slew the guardians of the camp, and 
seized upon the treasures of the confederate kings. Here Cyrus took 
a great number of horses, which enabled him to accomplish one of his 
favorite desires, the formation of a body of Persian cavalry. 

33. The Hyrcanians also came over to the conquering side, and 
thus the Persian army, instead of losing by the battle, was greatly re- 
enforced. At sunrise, Cyrus called in the Magi, and desired them to 
choose out of the booty every thing that was most proper to be 
offered to the gods. The remainder he delivered to the Medes and 
Hyrcanians, to be distributed to the whole army. When Cyaxares 
awoke next morning from the fumes of his wine, he was greatly dis- 
pleased to find most of his army gone with his nephew. He dispatched 
an officer to him, with orders to reproach him severely, and bring back 
the Medes. Cyrus, however, wrote him a respectful letter, and the 
affair passed over. 

Questions. — 31. In what were the Assyrians superior? In what the army of Cyrus? 
Give an account of Cyrus's first battle. Trace Cyrus from Persia to Media and Assyria 
82. In what particulars did the characters of Cyaxares and Cyrus differ? How was this, 
difference shown? 33. Where was Hyrcauia ? (See map No. 3.) In which direction from 
Media? Persia? Assyria? How was the Persian army increased? What disposition o» 
the booty did Cyrus make ? What displeasure did Cyaxares evince ? How was he appeased ? 



B.O.5C0.] THE PERSIANS RE-ENFORCED. 43 

34. Two Assyrian Noblemen join the Persians. — While Cyrus 
was making the necessary arrangements to profit by all these successes, 
a noble Assyrian, somewhat advanced in years, arrived on horseback, 
attended by a train of servants. He told Cyrus that he commanded a 
strong fortress, and had furnished the king with 1,000 horse, and that 
Ncreglissar had sought to ally him to the royal family, by marrying 
his daughter and son to the young prince and princess. "But alas," 
said he, "my son, being sent for by the king, went out to hunt with 
the young prince; and having pierced a lion with his spear, which 
Laborosoarchod had just missed, the impious wretch stuck a javelin 
into his breast, and took away the life of my dear, my only son ! 
Then I, miserable man, brought him away a corpse instead of a bride- 
groom. My king joined with me in my affliction, but the prince has 
never testified any remorse, nor can I ever serve under him, or give 
my daughter to the murderer of her brother." 

35. When Gobryas had finished his melancholy story, Cyrus gave 
him his hand, and promised, with the help of the gods, to avenge his 
cause. The other nobleman, Gadates, had been ill-treated, merely 
because one of the king's wives had called him handsome ; and burn- 
ing with revenge, he joined with Gobryas in a scheme to bring over 
the Caducians to Cyrus, They were entirely successful, and the Per- 
sian army was thus re-enforced by a strong fortress near Babylon, and 
a body of 30,000 men. 

36. Susian Princess. — Among the prisoners which they had taken 
was Panthea, wife of Abradates, prince of Susiana. As she was ex- 
ceedingly beautiful, she was placed in a costly tent, found also among 
the spoils, till Cyru^s pleasure should be known concerning her. 
Cyrus committed her to Araspes (the person to whom he gave the 
Median robe when a boy), but Araspes, not so much engaged in war as 
his master, fell violently in love with the handsome captive ; on this, 
Cyrus sent him away to the enemy, as if he had banished him ; but 
with secret instructions to act as a spy. Panthea, thinking that she 
had been the cause of trouble to her noble protector, sent Cyrus word 
not to be distressed at the loss of Araspes, for she could supply his 
place with one equally brave; and not long after, being sent to her 
husband, she persuaded him to come over to the side of the Persians, 
with all his forces. 



Questions. — 34. Why did Gobryas, an Assyrian nobleman, join Cyrns? 85. Why did 
Gadates join hitn? Where did the Cidueians live? Ans. In Assyria. What aid did the 
Assyrian noblemen bring to Cyrus? 36. Relate the story of the captive princess Pan 
thea. What is the modern name of Susiana. Ans. Kurdistan. Where was Susiana 
(See map No. 3.) 



44 PERSIA. [b. c. 560. 

37. Cyrus's Meeting with his Uncle. — "When Cyaxares heard that 
Cyrus was returning re-enforced by the Hyrcanians, Caducians, and 
Susians, he was filled with envy ; and when Cyrus, alighting from his 
horse, came up to embrace him, he turned away his face, and burst 
into tears. The tender and respectful conduct of his nephew, however, 
soon softened him ; and many presents, with a splendid supper, re- 
moved all unkindness. The next day, a general assembly waj sum- 
moned to take into consideration the propriety of carrying on the war, 
and the majority of the allies being in favor of pressing Laborosoarchod 
to the last extremity, it was decided to make all preparations for 
another campaign. From deserters and prisoners they learned that 
the king of Assyria had gone to Lydia, taking with him talents of gold 
and silver, and presents of the most costly kind. The spies, too, 
brought in intelligence of the most alarming nature. 

38. Like the messengers of evil tidings to Job, one courier seemed 
to tread on the heels of another, with accounts of the formidable 
alliances making by the Babylonians. The Indian envoys, who had 
been to inquire the cause of the war, came back with an exact account 
of those mighty preparations which agitated all Asia. They said the 
combined forces were assembling in Lydia; that the Thracians had 
engaged themselves; that 120,000 men were marching from Egypt; 
and another army was expected from Cyprus; that the Cilicians, the 
Phrygians, the Paphlagonians, Cappadocians, Arabians, and Pheni- 
cians had already reached the rendezvous ; that Croesus had sent 
over to form a treaty with the Lacedemonians, and it was thought a 
greater army would be assembled at Thymbra than was ever before 
brought into the field. 

39. Cyrus marches to Lydia. — Cyrus, on his part, spared no pains 
to perfect the discipline of his troops, and to strengthen himself by 
powerful alliances. He knew all the officers of his army by name, 
and was continually among the soldiers, endeavoring to inspire them 
with the zeal and ardor he himself felt. The king of India, satisfied 
that the Assyrians were the aggressors, sent him a sum of money, and 
promised to stand his friend ; but beside the allies who had before 
joined him, he had no powerful princes to assist him. Notwithstand- 
ing the comparative inferiority of his forces, he determined again to 
carry the war into the enemy's country ; and, having left a part of the 

Questions— 37. What effect did the success of Cyrus have upon the mind of Cyaxares f 
How was the feeling removed ? What was done next day ? 88. What is said of the mes- 
sengers of evil tidings ? What forces were in combination against Cyrus ? 39. What pre>- 
j>aratious did Cyrus make ? What assistance did he receive ? 



b. o. 554.] ARRANGEMENTS FOR BATTLE. 45 

Medes with his uncle, set forward with his army on his third expe 
dition. 

40. When a short distance from Thymbra they took some prisoners, 
who informed them that the Assyrians and their confederates, hearing 
of their approach, had been three days preparing for battle; and that 
Croesus, assisted by a Greek and a certain Mede, were busy in drawing 
up the soldiers with great exactness. At the mention of the Mede, 
Cyrus was greatly rejoiced ; and not long after, Araspes (for it was 
he) came to him, bringing an exact account of the disposition of the 
enemy. As this is the first pitched battle of which we have a particu • 
lar description, a delineation of it will be given at some length. 

41. Marshaling of the Forces. — Cyrus's army consisted of 196,000 
men; Croesus's of 420,000. In addition to the regular infantry 
and cavalry, Cyrus had three hundred chariots, each drawn by four 
horses abreast. The pole of each chariot was armed with two long 
pikes, to pierce whatever opposed its advance, and several rows of 
sharp knives were placed at the back, to prevent the enemy from 
mounting behind. At each axletree, horizontal scythes, three feet 
long, were fastened in such a manner as to mow down the ranks of the 
enemy ; and still further to increase their power, short scythes were 
fixed, point downward, under the chariot, to cut in pieces whatever 
the impetuous onset should overturn. 

42. He had also a great number of towers mounted on wheels, each 
drawn by sixteen oxen. Each tower held twenty men, whose busi- 
ness it was to discharge stones and javelins upon the enemy. A body 
of camels, each trained to fight, with two Arabian archers on his back, 
was stationed opposite the Lydian cavalry, because a horse will fly 
from the presence of a camel. Croesus's troops were ranged in order 
of battle, thirty deep. The infantry filled the center, and the cavalry, 
with which he meant to surround the Persians, was stationed upon 
the wings. His army, thus drawn out in line, extended nearly five 
miles. Cyrus, in order to make as broad a front as possible, placed 
his infantry only twelve deep, and his cavalry in the same manner upon 
the wings, and then his army fell short of that of Croesus half a mile 
at each end. 

43. First in the line of infantry came the spearmen ; next, the arch- 
ers; and still a third body, to sustain or threaten those who gave 

Questions. — 40. Where was Thymbra? (See map No. 2.) What information did Cyrus 
get from some prisoners? What caused Cyrus to rejoice? 41. What was the strength 01 
the respective armies? What is said of Cyrus's chariots ? 42. Of his towers? How were 
the troops of the respective armies ranged ? 43. How did Cyrus further arrange his forces? 



±6 



PERSIA. 



[b. c. 554. 



way — to kill traitors, and keep cowards in their places; and behind 
them came the moving towers, so high that the soldiers in them dis- 
charged their slings and javelins above the heads of the advance Per- 
sians ; and to prevent all possibility of retreat, a row of baggage was 
placed behind them, and the lines filled up with infantry and camels, 
so that the enemy would be obliged to take a long circuit to surround 
them, and then would be impeded by wagons, boxes, tent-poles, and 
all the paraphernalia of a camp. The scythe-armed chariots were 
separated into three divisions; the one commanded by Abradates, 
placed in front of the battle, and the other two upon the flanks : 



CAVALRY. 



Arciieks. - 
Sling eks. 
Spearmen. 



Solid battalion 

of 
Egyptians ; 

Thirty 
men each way. 



Camels. 

Cavalry. 

100 

Chariots. 



Spearmen. 
Slingees. 
Archers. 



Camp Furniture. 



100 

Chariots. 
Spearmen, 

3 deep. 

Archers, 

3 deep. 

3d Body. 

Towers. 



Archers, ten 

deep. 
Siingers, ten 

deep. 

Spearmen, 

ten deep. 

Spearmen. 



CAVALRY. 



Slingers. 



ARcnERS. 



Cavalry. 

Camels. 

100 
Chariots. 



Camp Furniture. 



From this imperfect sketch, an idea may be formed of the position 
of the troops as they were drawn out the day before the engagement. 

44. Battle of Thymbra. — Early in the morning, Cyrus made a 
sacrifice; and the soldiers, having taken some refreshment, and poured 
out libations to the gods, arrayed themselves in their armor of bur- 
nished brass, and took their places in the ranks. Panthea had made a 
robe for Abradates, and she put it on him with her own hands. She 
bound on his golden helmet and arm-pieces, the tears all the while 
streaming down her cheeks, though she besought him to prove to 
Cyrus that he was worthy of the confidence reposed in him. Abra- 
dates, lifting his eyes to heaven, prayed that he might appear a hus- 
band worthy of Panthea, and a friend worthy of Cyrus; then mounting 
his chariot, he bade her farewell, and never saw her more ! The Per- 
sian standard was a golden eagle perched upon a pike, with its wings 
stretched out, and Cyrus warned his soldiers to take care of that, and 
move forward without breaking their ranks. 

45. When Croesus discovered how much superior his own forces 
were to those of Cyrus, he ordered his front to remain linn, while the 



Questions. — U. What was done early on the morning of the battle ? Bf what nnme is 
the battle known? What aid did Panthea give ? 45. Give an account of the beginning of 
the battle. 



B. c. 554.] THE BATTLE OF THYMBRA. 



47 



wings advanced to inclose the Persians, and join the battle on three 
sides at once. But at this, Cyrus's wings faced round, and stood thus • 



CKCKSUS s. 



CYRUS'S. 



waiting in breathless silence for the event. At once loud and clear 
rose the voice of their leader, chanting the battle hymn. A respon- 
sive shout burst from the soldiers, and with invocations to the god of 
war they rushed on to the charge. The wings were first engaged ; 
the cavalry of the. enemy began to give way before the camels, and 
the chariots falling furiously into the mele6, the rout became general. 

46. Abradates, who had been waiting for this signal, now com- 
menced the attack in front; but here the Egyptians maintained their 
ground not only, but overturned the chariots, slew Abradates, and 
drove the Persian infantry as far back as the fourth line; but there 
such a tremendous storm of arrows and javelins fell upon their heads 
from the rolling towers as caused them to waver in their ranks, and 
at the same instant Cyrus, coming up at the head of his victorious 
cavalry, attacked them on the rear. Advance or retreat was now 
impossible; but the Egyptians, turning upon their new assailants, 
defended themselves with incredible bravery. Cyrus himself was in 
great danger. His horse having been stabbed by a fallen foe, sank 
under him, and he was precipitated into the midst of his enemies. 
Officers and men, equally alarmed at the danger of their leader, rushed 
headlong into the thick forest of pikes to his rescue. He was quickly 
remounted, and, his men rallying round him, the battle became more 
bloody than ever. 

47. Concerned at the destruction of so many brave men, Cyrus 
finally offered them honorable terms of capitulation, and the Egyptians 
having surrendered, all hope of retrieving the day was gone. The 
battle lasted till evening. Croesus retreated as fast as possible to 
Sardis, and the other kings followed his example, each taking up the 
line of march for his own country. As soon as the confusion had in 
some measure subsided, Cyrus inquired of the officers assembled about 



Questions. — 46. Give a further account of the hattle. 47. What capitulation was offered 
and accepted ? What allies of the Assyrians fought most bravely ? To what place did 
Crouaus retreat? In which direction is Sardis from Thymbra ? (See map No. 2.) 



48 PEE SI A. [b.c. 554 

him for Abradates, and one of the servants related his overthrow by 
the Egyptians. No sooner had Cyrus heard of his death than he 
leaped to his saddle and set off in search of him. 

48. On the bank of the river Pactolus sat the wretched Panthea, 
with the head of her husband on her knees ; she was bathing his pale 
face with her tears, while, with an air of distraction, she watched her 
servants digging his grave upon a little hill close by : Cyrus came up, 
with his attendants, bringing sweet odors, ornaments, and every thing 
proper for the burial ; but Panthea seemed incapable of receiving con 
solation. She sent them all away till she should require their assist- 
ance, and then, having exacted a promise from her nurse to wrap her 
body in the same robe with her husband, she thrust a sword into her 
bosom, and, laying her head upon his breast, expired. They were 
wrapped in one mantle, and laid in one grave — the brave Abradates 
and his loving wife ; and Cyrus caused a mound to be raised over them, 
which continued till the days of Xenophon. 

49. Taking of Sardis and Crcssus. — The next day he advanced 
upon Sardis, and made great preparation for taking it by storm ; but 
a Persian slave betrayed to him a private entrance into the citadel, so 
that he secured possession of it without bloodshed. He took Croesus 
prisoner, and, according to the custom of the times, prepared to burn 
him. When the pile was lighted, the fallen monarch exclaimed, three 
times, "O, Solon! Solon! Solon!" Struck with the accent, Cyrus 
ordered him to be unbound an<l brought before him. Upon inquiring 
the cause of this peculiar exclamation, he learned that Solon, an Athe- 
nian philosopher, had seen all the monarch's treasures, and yet had 
refused to call him happy, because he did not know what sad reverses 
might yet befall him. Thus forcibly reminded of the fickleness of 
fortune, Cyrus pardoned the king for the sake of the instruction con- 
veyed by the philosopher, and ever after Croesus was his friend. 

50. Cyrus goes to Babylon. — As this war belonged in reality to 
the Assyrians, Cyrus thought it not terminated so long as Babylon 
held its supremacy among the nations. So, calling all his troops 
together, and ranging them in the order of march, he set off for that 
great city which, since the fall of Nineveh, had been without a rival 
in Asia. The first measure of Cyrus was to surround Babylon with 

Questions.— 4S. Relate the story of Abradates and Panthea. Where is the river Pactolus ? 
(See map No. 2.) 49. Relate the circumstances of the taking of Sardis and Croesus. Or 
the escape of Crcesus from execution. What did Cyrus do with Croesus ? Ans. He took 
him back to Persia with him, where he lived to be very old, renowned for his wisdom 
and piety. 50. In what direction was Babylon from Sardis? (See map No. 8.) 



B.C.554.] CYRUS THE CONQUEROR. 49 

his troops ; but so great was the extent of the walls, that his forces 
seemed weak and contemptible when stretched over so large a space. 
He therefore called a council of war, and learning from Gobryas and 
Gadates the position of the palace, and the depth of the river, he 
entered upon a work every way worthy of his great genius and indom- 
itable perseverance. He drew a line of circumvallation quite round 
the city with a large deep trench, as though he intended to invest the 
place and reduce it by famine ; but as the besieged had provisions for 
twenty years, they ridiculed the idea of his taking up his abode there 
till they were starved into surrender. 

51. For two years his troops labored upon 'the vast excavation, and 
when it was found capacious enough to drain the Euphrates, together 
with the artificial lake dug by Nebuchadnezzar, he gave orders, on the 
night of a grand festival, to break down the dykes, and let the water 
flow away from its accustomed channel. The bed of the river made 
the path for his troops, and, once in the city, Gobryas and Gadates 
conducted them directly to the palace. In the confusion and clamor 
of killing the guards, Belshazzar seized his sword and ran to the gates, 
where he was immediately slain, and the two noblemen, amply avenged, 
took possession of the palace. Cyrus then sent a body of horse up 
and down the streets, proclaiming safety to those who remained in 
their houses, and thus, ere the sun again rose on Babylon, " the king- 
dom of Belshazzar was given to the Medes and Persians." 

Bead Jer. li. 11 ; Is. xiii. 15, 22, 17; Is. xlv. 1-4; Is. xxi. 2 ; and Dan. v. 

52. Cyrus's Triumphal Procession. — The next morning, those who 
were shut up in their houses, perceiving that their king was dead, 
gave up their arms and submitted quietly to the Persian. When 
Cyrus found himself well established in the kingdom, he prepared to 
triumph in a manner proportioned to his success. Having called his 
chief officers together, he gave them each a Median robe, that is, a 
long garment reaching to the feet, of the brightest colors, and richly 
embroidered with gold and silver. To the inferior officers he also 
presented robes of purple or scarlet. The next morning the army 
assembled before sunrise, clad in the garments which had been pre- 
pared for them. Four thousand guards, drawn up four deep, ranged 
themselves in front of the palace, and 2,000 placed themselves in the 
same manner on each side. The armed cavalry and gilded chariots 



Questions.— 50. How did Cyrus proceed against Babylon? 51. Give an account of the 
Biege and taking of Babylon. Of the fate of Belshazzar. 52. What took place next morn- 
ing ? What presents did Cyrus make ? What display was then made ? 
3 



50 PERSIA. [b. c. 

53. When all was ready, the gates of the palace were thrown open, 
and a great number of bulls of peculiar beauty were led out by four 
and four, to be sacrificed to Jove ; next followed splendid horses, to 
be sacrificed to the sun ; then a cavalcade of chariots and horses, fol- 
lowed by men bearing the Sacred Fire in a large hearth ; and then 
Cyrus appeared in his lofty car, with his purple robe flowing grace- 
fully from his shoulders, and a vest of mingled purple and white 
closely fitted to his noble person. The royal tiara was placed upright 
upon his head, encircled with the diadem of a conqueror. 

54. At sight of him, the people prostrated themselves in adoration; 
and then the guards, moving forward, made way for the coming of 
the officers of the king's household, the Immortal Band, the Median 
cavalry, and the cavalry of the allies. The chariots of war marched 
in the rear, and closed the procession. Simultaneously, and with 
beautiful precision, they moved to the fields consecrated to the gods, 
where the victims were sacrificed in a solemn holocaust to Jupiter and 
the sun ; after which, offerings were made to the earth and to the 
demi-gods of Assyria. The ceremonies of the day concluded with 
games and races, and a grand entertainment crowned the evening with 
mirth. Cyrus then made every one a present, and dismissed the 
assembly, filled with joy and gratitude. 

55. Cyrus marries the Daughter of Cyaxares. — When Cyrus 
had regulated affairs to his mind, he took a journey into Media. Cy- 
axares was glad to see him, and Cyrus acquainting him with all his 
arrangements, his uncle was exceedingly rejoiced, and sent his daughter 
to the conqueror of Asia with a crown of gold, bracelets, a collar, and 
Median robe. The maid, as she was ordered, put the crown upon his 
head. Cyaxares then said, " I give you the maid too, as your wife, 
and all Media as her dowry." Cyrus replied, " I applaud the race, the 
maid, and the presents, and, with the consent of my father and mother, 
will marry her." So he continued his journey to Persia, taking with 
him such magnificent presents as the subjects of his father had never 
seen, and enough to make them all rejoice in his return. 

56. Cambyses greeted him with all the tenderness which a father 
might feel for so good and dutiful a son, and having constituted him 
his heir, suffered him to depart again for Media to marry his cousin. 
The nuptials were performed with all due magnificence, and, accom- 

Questions.—hZ and 54. Describe the ceremonies that followed. 55. Upon the return of 
Cyrus, how did Cyaxares manifest his pleasure? Why did not Cyrus marry immediately? 
06. Was this his first wife ? Am. Probably not, for his don Cambyses began to reign nin« 
years after. 



b. c. 529.] CYRUS THE GREAT. 5 J 

panied by his wife and father-in-law, he again returned to Babylon. 
There Cyaxares reigned two years under the name of Darius the Mede. 
Daniel. — Daniel had now been prime minister to the kings of 
Babylon sixty-seven years, and such was his reputation for wisdom 
and integrity, that Darius made him chief of the three superintendents 
of the kingdom. Darius is supposed to have yielded to the craft of 
his courtiers in the affair of the lions' den, while Cyrus was absent 
subduing the countries near the Red Sea. 

Bead Daniel v. 31 ; also, Dan. vi. 1-23, and xi. 1. 

57. Cyrus King of Persia, b. o. 536. — By the death of his father 
and uncle, Cyrus now became sovereign of the Second Universal Mon- 
archy. Every province from the Indus to the Egean acknowledged 
his authority, and the little territory of which his father had been 
chief was greatly enlarged. It was twenty-three years since he left 
Persia, at the head of a small band of soldiers, to engage in war with 
Nereglissar, the most powerful monarch of the East : his troops, as he 
now reviewed them, consisted of 600,000 foot, 120,000 horse, and 
2,000 armed chariots; and he reigned seven years unquestioned lord 
of Asia. 

58. In the first year of his reign expired the seventieth year of the 
Babylonish captivity, and Cyrus, true to the prophesy, published the 
remarkable edict permitting the Jews to return to their own land. 
" The chosen people," under the conduct of Zorobabel, soon after 
departed for Jerusalem. Daniel, at whose instigation this favorable 
turn in their affairs was doubtless effected, must have been at this 
time more than eighty years old. Josephus says that he was much 
distinguished for his skill in architecture, and mentions a famous edi- 
fice built by him at Susa. It was a common tradition that he died 
in that city, and was honored with a splendid monument, which 
remained even to the time of Christ. 

59. To return to Cyrus. Historians differ as to the manner of his 
decease. Herodotus says he died a prisoner, but Xenophon makes 
him close a long life of enterprise and virtue with a calm and happy 

Questions. — 56. How many years did Cyaxares rule in Babylon under the name of 
Darius? What individual history in the Scriptures is emphatically connected with that 
of Darius during his reign in Babylon ? Did Daniel remain in Babylon ? Ana. It is sup- 
posed that he died in Susa, in the third year of Cyrus, after having persuaded that monarch 
to issue the decree to restore and build Jerusalem. 57. When did Cyrus become king of 
Persia? How extensive was his territory ? How large his military force ? How long did 
he reign unquestioned lord of Asia? 58. In the first year of his reign, what edict verified 
the prophesy in relation to the Jews ? Who escorted the Jews to Jerusalem ? What is said 
of Daniel in connection with this circumstance? 59. What difference of opinion is thero 
respecting the death of Cyrua? 



52 PERSIA. [b. c. 5'^y 

death. The minister of God's vengeance upon those nations whose 
" cup of iniquity was full," he still tempered victory with humanity, 
and made the dominion of the "Arras of silver" more tolerable than 
that of the " Head of gold." He fulfilled his peculiar destiny, and 
effected the purpose for which he was raised up, unconscious that God 
had chosen him, and called him by name by the mouth of his prophet » 
Isaiah, a century before his birth ; but it is thought that his edict for 
restoring Jerusalem proceeded from a mind instructed in the Divine 
Oracles; and the Jews say, he acknowledged that he received the 
empire of the world from the God of Israel. 

Kead 2 Chron. sxxvi. 22, 23 ; Ezra i. 1, 2 ; and vi. 1-5 ; also, Dan. ii. 38, 89 ; and vii. 5 ; 
also viii. 3, 4, 20. 

60. b. o. 529. — Cambyses. — Cambyses, son of Cyrus, succeeded to 
the throne of Persia. The wealth of his kingdom had not failed to 
affect his morals. As one born to command, he could not bear a refu- 
sal of that he desired, even from an equal ; so that when Amasis, king 
of Egypt, sent him another lady for his seraglio, instead of his own 
daughter, he was filled with rage, and determined to invade that coun- 
try. His preparations being completed, in the 4th year of his reign 
he marched to the frontiers of Egypt, where he learned that Amasis 
was just dead, and that Psainmenitus, his son, was gathering all his 
forces to stop him at Pelusiura. This place was very strong, and the 
siege of it might have detained him some time, had he not resorted to 
the following stratagem : in front of his army he placed a great num- 
ber of cats, dogs, sheep, and other animals held sacred by the Egyp- 
tians, and then attacked the city by storm. The soldiers of the garri- 
son, not daring to fling a dart or shoot an arrow, for fear of wounding 
their gods, Cambyses took the place without opposition. 

61. Soon after, Psammenitus approached with a large army, and 
offered battle.^ A desperate engagement followed, in which the Per- 
sians w r ere entirely victorious. Those of the Egyptians who escaped, 
fled to Memphis. The bodies of the slain were collected, the Persians 
by themselves and the Egyptians by themselves, and buried in'mounds 
one over against the other. In the days of Herodotus, the bones of 
the Egyptians and Persians were still moldering in the places where 
they were buried. The skulls of the former were so hard, that a vio- 

Questions.—m. What is said of his character? Of his destiny? 60. Who succeeded 
Cyrus to me throne of Persia? When did that event take place? What influence had 
the wealth of the kingdom upon the character of Cambyses ? In what year did he wage 
war upon Egypt? Who was the king of Egypt at that time? By what stratagem did 
he overcome the forces of Psammenitus? 61. Describe the battl« that followed. Belat* 
the story of the skulls. 



b. c. 524.] CAMBTSES IN AFRICA. 53 

lent blow from a stone conld scarcely break them ; while those of the 
latter were so soft, that a man might pierce them with a common 
walking-stick. The reason of this may be found in the different habits 
of the two nations. The Egyptians shaved their heads, and went 
always uncovered, while the Persians wore the turban, both at home 
and abroad. 

62. Oambyses pursued the fugitives to Memphis, and sent a herald 
to summon them to surrender. Contrary to the laws of war, the 
Egyptians fell upon him and his attendants, and slew them. Oam- 
byses, doubly enraged, attacked the place without loss of time. His 
efforts were successful, and as soon as he had made himself master of 
the city, he selected ten times the number of his slaughtered embassa- 
dors from the principal nobility, and caused them to be publicly exe- 
cuted. Among these was the eldest son of Psammenitus. As for 
Psammenitus himself, Oambyses seemed disposed to treat him with 
lenity. He spared his life, and appointed him an honorable mainte- 
nance ; but subsequently, finding him engaged in a conspiracy, he ordered 
him also to execution. Egypt was thus added to the Persian domin- 
ions, b. c. 525. From Memphis, Oambyses proceeded to Sais, where 
he ordered the dead body of Amasis to be dragged from its tomb, and 
burned, thinking that the greatest indignity he could offer it. 

63. b. c. 524. — The Ethiopian Expedition. — The next year, Oam- 
byses determined to make war in three different countries, viz. : 
against the Carthaginians, the Ammonians, and the Ethiopians. The 
first of these projects he was obliged to abandon, because his Pheni- 
cian sailors would not assist against the Tyrian colony, Carthage ; and 
the other two served but to show the madness of a man drunk with 
power. He sent embassadors into Ethiopia, carrying presents of pur 
pie cloths, golden bracelets, and perfumes, with secret orders to act 
as spies, and bring back an exact account of the state and strength of 
the country. 

64. The Ethiopians despised the presents, and with their natural 
shrewdness concluded the embassadors to be what they really were, 
enemies in disguise ; but to return the courtesy of Cambyses, the Ethi- 
opian king took a bow in his hand, which a Persian could hardly lift, 
and, drawing it with the utmost ease, said to the messengers, " This ia 

Questions. — 61. How long had they been there when Herodotus saw them ? Arts. About 
70 years. 62. Relate the story of the ambassadors. When was Egypt then added to the 
Persian dominions ? What did Cambyses do at Sais ? Where was Sais ? (See map No. 1 .) 
63. What project did Cambyses contemplate for the next year? In what year was that? 
Which of the projects did he abandon ? Why ? How did he commence against the Ethio- 
pians ? 64. How did the Ethiopians act in the matter ? 



54 PERSIA. [b. c. 524. 

the present, ind this the counsel, which the king of Ethiopia gives to 
the king of Persia. When the Persians shall be able to bend a bow 
of this bigness and strength, with as much ease as I have now done, 
then l«t. him come to attack the Ethiopians, and bid him bring more 
forces than Cambyses is master of. Till then, let him thank the gods 
for not having put it into the hearts of the Ethiopians to extend their 
dominions beyond their own country." 

65. Upon the receipt of this answer, Cambyses determined to set off 
immediately, and he made such injudicious haste, that his army was 
not half supplied with provisions. He pushed on, however, without 
stopping, till he reached Thebes. There he separated a chosen detach- 
ment of 50,000 men, and sent them into Ammonia, with orders to 
ravage the country, and destroy the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon. 
The devoted band, stranger to the perils of their journey, set off to 
obey the mandate of their king. For several days, nothing occurred 
to hinder their progress, save the hunger and thirst of a desert ; but 
finally a strong wind came up from the south, and lifting the sands 
like waves of the sea, moved them forward with irresistible power. 
The terror-stricken Persians struggled manfully with their fate, but 
the simoom of the desert was stronger than they, and, far from hope 
or help, they sank down, and were buried beneath the drifting sands. 

66. In the mean time, Cambyses pursued his journey. The barren- 
ness of the country increased at every step. For the luxuries of Egypt, 
the army substituted herbs, roots, and leaves; but these failing, they 
began to devour their beasts of burden, and finally they were reduced 
to the horrible alternative of starving or eating one another. The lot 
was cast, and every tenth man was doomed to become food for his 
companions. Cambyses, in sight of all this misery, had feasted daily, 
according to his custom ; till at last, so many of his forces died, and 
discontent became so general, that, fearing a mutiny, he gave orders 
to return. With the remains of his army he reached Thebes, where 
he thought proper to vent his mortification upon the temple of the 
gods. The pillage amounted to 300 talents of gold, and 2,300 of silver ; 
a sum greater than 2,000,000 of our dollars. He also took away the 
circle of gold from the tomb of Osymandyas. 

67. Cambyses's Tyranny. — From Thebes, Cambyses proceeded to 

Questions.— §b. How did their conduct influence Cambyses? Relate what befell the 
chosen detachment. Where was the temple of Jupiter Ammon ? (See map No. 1.) 66. 
How did the army of Cambyses suffer? How did Cambyses vent his mortification upon his 
return to Thebes. Where was Carthage? (See map No. 1.) In which direction was it from 
Babylon. Ethiopia from Babylon? 67. Tell the story of Cambyses's tyranny to the 
Egyptians. 



e. c. 524. j CRUELTIES OF CAMBYSES. 55 

Memphis. As he approached the city, the sound of mirth and festivity 
greeted his ears. Supposing that the people were rejoicing at the ill 
success of his expedition, lie fell into a violent passion, and, sending 
for the magistrates, demanded of them the cause of these unwonted 
demonstrations of joy. They told him that their god Apis, recently 
deceased, had reappeared, and all the people were welcoming his ar- 
rival. Considering this as an evasion, he sent them to instant execution. 
He then called for the priests, of whom he made the same inquiry. 
Receiving the same answer, he ordered the god himself before him ; but 
when the deity appeared, and he found it was nothing but a calf, he 
ran up to it, and thrust his sword into its thigh, and upbraiding the 
priests for worshiping a beast, ordered them to be scourged. The 
poor calf was carried back to its temple, where it died of its wound. 
The Egyptians said, that after this impious act Oambyses went mad, 
but, judging from his conduct, he was bereft of reason long before. 

68. Cambyses's only brother, Smerdis, accompanied him into Ethi- 
opia ; but as he was the only man who could draw the bow brought 
back by the embassadors, Oambyses became jealous of him, and sent 
him home. Afterward he dreamed that Smerdis was king, which so 
wrought upon his imagination, that he sent Prexaspes, one of his 
chief favorites, to put him to death. However, Prexaspes was most 
cruelly punished for his crime by the same jealous tyrant. Oambyses 
had caused several of his principal noblemen to be buried alive, and 
so many of his friends had suffered from his fury, that he began to fear 
for his life. In one of his jealous moods he obliged Prexaspes to tell 
him what his subjects said of him. 

69. Prexaspes spoke with the utmost caution. "They admire a 
great many excellent qualities they see in you, but they are somewhat 
mortified at your immoderate love of wine." — " I understand you," re- 
plied the king, " they pretend that wine deprives me of my reason : 
you shall be judge of that immediately." Then calling for the son of 
Prexaspes, who was his cup-bearer, to bring the goblets, he drank a 
greater quantity of wine than ever before, and ordering the youth to 
stand at the farther end of a long hall, with his left hand upon his 
head, he took his bow, and declaring he aimed at the boy's trembling 
heart, discharged the arrow. To complete the cruel scene, he com- 
manded Prexaspes to open his son's side, and see if wine had impaired 
the steadiness of his hand ! The wretched father, trembling for his 
own life, replied, " Apollo could not have shot better." 

Questions.— 6S. Of his tyranny to his brother. 69. Of his tyranny to Prexaspes. 



56 PERSIA. (B. C. 522. 

70. Cambyses's Death. — In the eighth year of his reign, Cambyses 
left Egypt for Persia. When he came into Syria, he found a herald 
there, sent from Susa to proclaim Smerdis, son of Cyrus, king, and to 
command the army to transfer their allegiance to him. Cambyses, to 
know the facts in the case, had the herald brought into his presence, 
and cross-questioned with Prexaspes. From this examination it ap- 
peared that the true Smerdis was really dead, and that the usurper 
could be no other than Smerdis the magian, who bore a strong resem- 
blance to the murdered prince. 

71. Upon this, Cambyses made loud and public lamentations, de- 
claring that his dear and only brother had been put to death by mis- 
take, and, ordering all his army to prepare to take vengeance upon the 
man who had assumed his name, he prepared to march against him. 
"But just as he was mounting his horse, his sword slipped from its 
scabbard and wounded him in the thigh. The Egyptians looked 
upon this as a judgment, for the indignity offered their god Apis. 
When Cambyses saw that he must die, he sent for the chief Persians, 
and, making them acquainted with all the circumstances concerning 
Smerdis, besought them not to suffer the sceptre to pass into the 
hands of a Median tribe, but to elect a king from their own number. 
He reigned seven years and five months. 

72. b.c. 522. — Concerning Smeedis's Ears. — The Persians, thinking 
Cambyses had forged the story he told them, out of hatred to his 
brother, paid no attention to it, and at his death quietly submitted to 
the magian. To continue the imposture by winch he had gained the 
throne, Smerdis shut himself up in the palace, and admitted only his 
chief officers to his presence ; and to strengthen himself in the king- 
dom, he married all his predecessor's wives, among whom was Atossa, 
daughter of Cyrus (for Cambyses had married two of his own sisters), 
and Phedyma, daughter of Otanes, a noble Persian. 

73. This nobleman, suspecting the imposition, sent a messenger to 
his daughter, to know whether the king was the real Smerdis or some 
other man. She answered, that never having seen Smerdis, the son 
of Cyrus, she could not tell. He sent again, bidding her ask Atossa, 
who would, of course, know her own brother. She replied that the 
king kept his wives in separate apartments, and she was not permitted 

Questions. — 70. When did Cambyses leave Egypt for Persia? "What danger threatened 
him in Syria? "What facts did he ascertain? Tl. What course of duplicity did he pursue ? 
Tell the story of his death. In going from Memphis to Syria, in what direction did Cam- 
bvseB march? (See map No. 1.) 72. Who was the successor of Cambyses ? In what year 
did the magian gain the throne ? By what means did he endeavor to continue the imposi- 
tion ? 73. How was the imposture discovered ? 



b. o. 521.] SMERDIS THE USURPER. 57 

to see x\tossa. Otanes sent a third time, telling her that Cambyses 
had cutoff the ears of Smerdis the magian, and bade her watch her 
opportunity when the king was asleep, and see whether he had any 
ears or not. She did so, and putting her hands carefully under his 
turban, found that he was in reality earless. 

74. Conspiracy and Confession. — When Otanes learned that his 
suspicions were correct, he entered into a conspiracy with Darius 
Hystaspes and five other noblemen, to dethrone the usurper. Every 
thing was kept secret till the very day fixed for the execution of the 
plot. On that day a strange circumstance prepared the minds of the 
people for the event. The magians, constantly uneasy lest their arti- 
fice should be unveiled, had extorted a promise from Prexaspes, that 
he would declare, before an assembly of the people, Smerdis the king 
to be the son of Cyrus. Prexaspes, at the appointed time, mounted to 
the top of a tower, and, to the astonishment of the assembled multi- 
tude, confessed that he had murdered the true Smerdis with his own 
hand. He begged pardon of the gods for the crime he had been com- 
pelled to commit, and, leaping from the tower, was instantly killed by 
the fall. 

75. Death of Smerdis and Election of Darius. — This unlooked- 
for event filled the magians with consternation. Smerdis retired to an 
inner chamber in the palace; thither the conspirators pursued him, 
and having slain his guards, cut off his head and brought it out to the 
people. The mob, infuriated at being imposed upon, fell upon the 
magi, and destroyed so many of them that the day was ever after 
called " The slaughter of the magi." When the tumult had in some 
measure subsided, the lords entered into a consultation about the form 
of government which should be adopted. Otanes declared for an 
aristocracy, but Darius gave so many good reasons in favor of a mon- 
archy, that he brought the other lords into his opinion, and a monarchy 
was decided upon. 

76. The next inquiry was, who should be king; and this being 
referred to the gods, the lot fell upon Darius, and he was accordingly 
anointed sovereign of Persia. The lords who had placed him on the 
throne were his privy counselors, and in all public affairs were the 
first to deliver their opinions. They wore their tiaras bent forward, 
to distinguish them from the king, who wore his upright, and from 

Questions. — 74. What measures did Otanes take ? What did Prexaspes do? 75. Give an 
account of the death of the impostor Smerdis. How were the magi made to suffer? 
What consultation was held? With what result? 76.. How was Darius elected king? 
What is said of the wearing of the tiaras ? 
3* 



58 PERSIA. [b. c. 521 

the other nobles, who wore theirs bent back. 521. b. o. — Darius was 
the son of Hystaspes, of the royal family of Persia. In his youth he 
had served under Cyrus, and been rewarded for his valor by the hand 
of the daughter of Gobryas. After his accession to the throne, he 
took his predecessor's wives, and Aristona, another daughter of 
Cyrus. He was the greatest and most powerful king that ever filled 
the throne of Persia. 

77. Cyrus and Cambyses had conquered nations, but Darius was 
the true founder of the Persian state; the various countries which 
they had brought into subjection, he organized into an empire, where 
every member felt its place and knew its functions. His realm 
stretched from the Egean to the Indus, from the steppes of Scythia to 
the cataracts of the Nile. This vast tract he divided into twenty 
districts, and settled how much each portion was to contribute to the 
royal treasury ; but though the sum required was much less than the 
inhabitants were able to pay without inconvenience, they murmured 
at it. They called Cyrus father; Cambyses, master ; but Darius they 
styled " the merchant." The annual revenue in his days amounted to 
$9,600,000. 

78. The building of the temple, and the rearing up of the walls of 
Jerusalem, had been interrupted in the preceding reigns ; but in the 
second year of this prince, Haggai the prophet, and Zechariah the son 
of Iddo, stirred up the people to the work. The ancient enemies of 
the Jews strove to hinder them, and even sent a letter to Darius to 
advertise him of what was going on in the province of Judea. The 
records of Cyrus being searched, his decree was found at Acmetha 
or Ecbatana, and Darius gave orders that the builders should not only 
be tolerated, but assisted in their pious work. 

Head Esther i. 1, 2, and Ezra iv. 4 ; and v. entire ; also vi. 1, 2, 6, and Hag. i. 1. 

79. Taking of Babylon. — In the beginning of his reign, Darius 
meditated an invasion of Scythia; but this expedition was delayed by 
the revolt of Babylon. During the troubles about Smerdis, and the 
election of Darius, the inhabitants had been engaged in laying up pro- 
visions, and preparing for war: they now boldly threw off the yoke. 
The Jews, warned by the exhortation of Zechariah, "Thou Zion that 

Questions. — 76. When did Darius become king? What is said of the power and great- 
ness of Darius? 77. What is said of him as a founder and organizer? What was the ex- 
tent of his realm? Compare it with the realm of Cyrus. Where was the Egean Sea? 
(See map No. 3.) What is the Egean Sea now called? Ans. The Archipelago. Where 
is the Indus river? (See map of Asia.) Where was Scvthia? (See map No. 1.) What 
are tlv steppes of Scythia? 73. What is said of the building of the temple and walls oJ 
Jerusalem ? 79. W'.'it invasion did Darius meditate ? Why was it delayed ? 



B. c. 521.] BABYLON TAKEN. 59 

dwellest with the daughter of Babylon, flee from the country and save 
thyself, 1 ' had probably availed themselves of the king's permission, 
and returned to Jerusalem. To make their provisions last as long as 
possible, the Babylonians determined to destroy all the unserviceable 
persons in the place. They assembled their wives and children toge- 
ther and strangled them, only permitting each man to retain his best 
beloved wife, and one maid-servant to do the work of the family. 
The capitulation of the city by famine seemed as hopeless as in the 
days of Cyrus. The Persians tried the old stratagem of draining the 
Euphrates in vain ; the battering-rams made no impression on the 
massive walls, and at the end of eighteen months victory seemed as 
far off as ever. 

80. But assistance came to Darius in an unlooked-for manner. 
Megabytes, one of the seven conspirators against Smerdis, had a son 
Zopyrus whom Darius tenderly loved. What was the king's astonish- 
ment to see this young nobleman appear before him one day with his 
ears and nose cut off, and his whole body mangled in the most shock- 
ing manner. Starting up from his throne, he cried out, " Who is it, 
Zopyrus, that has dared to treat you thus?" — "Yourself, king," 
replied Zopyrus ; " the desire that I had of rendering you service has 
brought me into this condition. As I was fully persuaded that you 
would never have consented to this method, I consulted only the zeal 
I have for your service." He then unfolded his design to the king, 
and with him concerted a plan to insure its success. All wounded 
and bleeding as he was, Zopyrus made his way to Babylon, and 
begged admittance. The guards took him in, and carried him before 
the governor. 

81. To him Zopyrus represented that Darius had thus mutilated 
his body, because he tried to dissuade him from continuing the siege, 
and he added that his only feeling now was a desire of revenge. His 
name and person were well known at Babylon, his wounds testified to 
the truth of his story, and the governor fell at once into the snare, 
Zopyrus was most active in the garrison. He sallied out with the 
Babylonians, and defeated the Persians in so many engagements, that 
the whole city rang with his praise. Finally, he was appointed 
generalissimo of the army, and intrusted with the keeping of the walls. 
At the time agreed upon, Darius came up with his forces, and Zopyrus 
opened the gates to his master. The king then ordered the hundred 
gates to be pulled down, and the massive walls to be demolished, that 

Questions.— 79. "What preparations did the Babylonians make for resistance ? 80. What 
unexpected assistance came to Darius? SI. How was Babylon taken by Cyrus ? 



60 PERSIA. fB. c. 508. 

the city might never again defy the Persian arras. TliTee thousand 
of the principal rebels were impaled, and the remainder received a free 
pardon. 

82. The Scythian Expedition. — This inconvenient insurrection 
being thus terminated, Darius set out for the Scythian war. The 
whole military force of the empire was put in motion, and the num- 
bers of the army amounted to 700,000 men. His fleet, manned chiefly 
by Ionian mariners, was directed to sail up the Egean, through the 
Hellespont and Bosphorus into the Euxine ; thence up the Danube to 
a certain point, where he would join it with his land forces. At the 
head of his army he moved through Asia Minor, crossed the Bos- 
phorus on a bridge of boats, and proceeded through Thrace to the 
place of rendezvous. In several places he erected magnificent pillars, 
with high-sounding inscriptions. On one was carved, " This pillar 
was erected by Darius, the best and handsomest of all men living." 

83. To cross the Danube, he made another bridge of boats, the 
keeping of which he committed to the Ionians, telling them, if he did 
not return in two months, they might retire. The Scythians, hearing 
of this formidable invasion, sent their wives and children, their flocks 
and herds, into those impenetrable fastnesses, known only to them- 
selves. They also filled up the wells, stopped the springs, and con- 
sumed all the forage of those places through which the Persians were 
to pass. Thus secure, they slowly retreated before the advancing 
hosts, drawing them on, deeper and deeper, into the forests of Europe. 
Darius, weary of the tedious pursuit, sent a herald to the king of the 
Scythians, inquiring why he did not stop and give battle; or, if he 
feared him, why he did not acknowledge his master, by sending earth 
and water. The Scythian replied, that he had neither cities nor lands 
to defend, and that he acknowledged no other master than Jupiter. 

84. The farther Darius advanced into the country, the greater 
were the hardships to which his army were exposed. Just when it 
was reduced to the last extremity, there came a herald to him from 
the Scythian prince, bringing a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows, 
as a present. Darius was sorely puzzled to know what these typified ; 
but one of his seven lords explained the enigma in this manner: 

Questions. — 81. How did he punish the Babylonians for their revolt? 82. After the in 
Burrection, on what expedition did Darius set out? What direction did he give to the fleet? 
How did he proceed with the army ? Trace the course of the fleet from the Archipelago 
into the Danube. Trace his land army from Susa to the Pruth, where it joined the fleet. S3. 
Who were the Ionians? (See map No. 2.) What is said of the bridge of boats across 
the Danube? What plan of action did the Scythians adopt? What message did Darius 
Bend ? What reply was made ? 84. What wa? sent t<> Darius by the Scythian prince ? 



B. c. 500.] THE PERSIANS AND SCYTHIANS. 61 

" Know," said he, " that unless you c&njly away in the air like a bird, 
or hide in the earth like a mouse, or swim in the water like a frog, 
you shall not be able to escape the arrows of the Scythians." The 
Persians had now come upon a barren country, and were in danger of 
perishing for want of water, so that Darius found himself under an 
absolute necessity of abandoning his imprudent enterprise. 

85. Therefore, as soon as night came on, the Persians built their 
camp fires as usual, and leaving the infirm and sick behind them, 
marched away as fast as possible towards the Danube. The Scythians, 
discovering their retreat, sent an express by a shorter path, to per- 
suade the Ionians to destroy the bridge, and thus throw the Persian 
king into their power. Miltiades, then tyrant of Ohersonesus, perceiv- 
ing that this would break the yoke from the neck of the Ionian 
colonies, strongly advocated the measure ; but Histiasus, governor of 
Miletus, represented that, as they held their power of Darius, to turn 
against him would be to destroy themselves. The Persians were 
therefore permitted to pass the bridge in safety, and Darius finally 
reached Sardis, where he spent almost a year in recruiting his army. 

86. Conquest of India. — b. o. 508. — To wipe away the disgrace of 
this unfortunate enterprise, the Persian monarch shortly after under- 
took an expedition against India. He caused a fleet to be fitted out upon 
the Indus, which, under the command of Scylax, passed down through 
the Southern Ocean, and up the Red Sea. By the conquest of India, 
an immense revenue was added to the Persian treasury. 502. b. o. — 
This year, to attach the Phenicians to his interest, Darius restored inde- 
pendence to Tyre, seventy years after it was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 

Eead Is. xxiii. 15. 

87. b. o. 500. — This century is filled with the most important events 
to Persia and Greece. The Persian invasions introduce so complete and 
interesting a comparison of these rival powers, that the attention of 
the historian is especially directed to them, and the student is requested 
to make himself particularly familiar with all the causes which con- 
tributed to the overthrow of the hosts of Asia by the Grecian states. 
Histiteus, tyrant of Miletus, who had preserved the bridge of boats 

Questions— 84. How was the riddle explained ? 85. By what stratagem did Darius 
escape ? By whose policy was he suffered to repass the bridge committed to the care ot 
the Ionians? Trace Darius from the Pruth to the Volga, and hack to Sardis. S6. What 
expedition did Darius next undertake? Why did he do so? What course did his fleet 
take? How did he attach the Tyrians to his interests? S7. Who was Histkeus ? Where 
was Miletus? (See map No. 2.) What can you say of Miletus? Ans. It was reckoned 
Jiext to Carthage and Tyre for its commerce. What invitation was extended to Ilistiajus? 
* 1F here was Susa ? (See map No. 1.) In what direction was Susa from Miletus ? 



62 PERSIA. [B. c. 500. 

over the Danube, was invited to Snsa by Darius. Before setting out 
for court, he committed the government of Miletus to Aristagoras, 
his son-in-law. About the same time, Darius made his own brother, 
Artaphernes, governor of Sardis. A quarrel arose between Aristagoras 
and Artaphernes. Histiseus, who knew the character and temper of 
the Greeks, and was at the same time anxious to return home, sent a 
messenger to Aristagoras, telling him that his wisest course would be, 
to revolt from the Persians entirely, and to engage all the Ionian 
colonies to do the same. 

88. Aristagoras complied with his father's desire, and soon all the 
states of Grecian descent in Asia Minor were engaged in a common 
league against Persia. Still further to strengthen his arm, Aristagoras 
made a voyage across to the Egean, to persuade the Greeks, by their 
ties of kindred, and their ancient freedom, to assist their brethren of 
Ionia in regaining their liberties. An insult which the Athenians had 
themselves received from Persian pride, induced them to listen to his 
representations. About ten years before, they had banished Hippias, 
for usurping authority over the state. Artaphernes had received the 
exile, and listened to his complaints. The Athenians sent to justify 
their conduct to the Persian governor, and received for answer, if they 
wished to be safe, they must take Hippias for their king. When 
Aristagoras therefore told them of the oppressive rule of Artaphernes 
over the Ionian colonies, and entreated their help to break the yoke, 
they entered readily into his feelings, and agreed to assist the league 
with twenty ships. 

89. Burning of Sardis. — The Eretrians, inhabitants of a little city in 
Euboea, added five more ; and with this slight re-enforcement, Arista- 
goras returned to Ephesus, where he landed with his confederates, and 
marched to Sardis. The governor retired to the citadel; the Greeks 
had free plunder ; and a soldier, perceiving that most of the buildings 
were roofed with reeds, set one of them on fire. The flames spread 
from house to house, and soon the whole city was on fire. This burn- 

Questions. — 87. Who was made governor of Sardis? Between whom did a quarrel 
begin? What advice was given to Aristagoras? How had the Ionian colonies 
been settled ? Ari-s. Asia Minor was originally settled by the descendants of Javan, who 
therefore were of the same family as the Ionians; but the term Ionians embraces only the 
colonies settled by the Grecians driven from Peloponnesus, after the Trojan war, by the 
Dorians. Eolia had eleven cities and Ionia twelve. They were subjugated by Croesus, and 
of course, fell with Lydia under the dominion of Persia. 88. With what success were the 
efforts of Aristagoras attended ? Why did the Athenians listen to him ? Whore is Athens ? 
(See map No. 2.) 89. Who were the Eretrians? Where was the island of Euboea? (See 
map No. 2.) What is it called now? An*. Negropont. Give an account of the burning 
of Sardis. 



b. c. 490.] CAUSES OF THE PERSIAN WAR. 63 

ing of Sardis by Aristagoras and the Athenians was the torch which 
lighted the flame of war in Asia Minor, and kindled in the breast of 
Darius an inextinguishable desire for revenge. When the intelligence 
was brought to him, he called for a bow, put an arrow into it, and shot 
it into the air, with these words: "Grant, Jupiter, that I may be 
able to revenge myself upon the Athenians." After he had thus 
spoken, he commanded one of his attendants to exclaim thrice every 
time dinner was set before him, "Master! remember the Athenians." 

90. Death of Aristagoras and Histiseus. — During all these com- 
motions, Histiseus had remained in Susa; but perceiving that Darius 
suspected that his relative had acted by his directions, he begged per- 
mission to go and quell the revolt. His request was finally granted ; 
but before he arrived at Miletus, Aristagoras was slain in battle. 
Histiams offered himself at once to the Ionians, and used every means 
in his power to become head of the league; but they all feared him, 
and at last, his intrigues being discovered, he was crucified by Arta- 
phernes. 

91. Expedition of Mardonius, b. o. 493. — In the 28th year of his 
reign, Darius, having fitted out a fleet, committed it to the command 
of Mardonius, his son-in-law, with orders to punish the Greeks for the 
burning of Sardis. Mardonius was a young man, and not over skillful 
in the art of war ; and though more entitled to consideration for being 
the king's son-in-law, was not perhaps the more gifted on that account. 
In doubling Mount Athos, his fleet encountered a violent storm, in 
which three hundred ships were wrecked, and about 20,000 men 
drowned. His land army shared a similar fate. The Thracians 
attacked the camp by night, made a great slaughter, and wounded 
Mardonius himself. Thus the first army fitted out against Athens did 
not succeed in reaching Greece at all! 

92. b. c. 490. Datis and Artaphernes.— The losses of Mardonius 
only animated Darius to greater exertions. He caused another army 
to be assembled, appointed Datis and Artaphernes, two generals of 
tried abilities, to command it, and engaged the banished Hippias to 
conduct them to Athens by the shortest route. However, to leave no 
stain upon his clemency, he first sent heralds into Greece, demanding 



Questions.— 89. What was the consequence? Where was Sardis? (See map No. 2.) 
90. What became of Aristagoras? What did Histiseus do? 91. Who was Mardonius? 
What command was given to him? In what year did that occur? Where is Mount 
Athos? (See map No. 2.) What disaster occurred there? What further is said ol the 
expedition ? 92. What effect did the losses of Mardonius have upon the mind of Darius? 
How did he undertake to relieve himself against a charge touching his "•leniency?" 



64 PERSIA. [b.c. 486. 

" earth and water." Some of the States, intimidated by the mighty 
preparations making in Asia, yielded the required tokens of submis- 
sion ; but the heralds sent to Athens and Sparta were thrown, one 
into a ditch, and the other into a well, and tauntingly told to help 
themselves to " earth and water." 

93. When every thing was ready, Darius sent away his generals, 
telling them to give up Athens and Eretria to be plundered, to burn 
all the houses and temples, and to bring all the inhabitants to Persia, 
bound in chains, which he provided for that purpose. This time the 
Persians passed directly across the Egean, and landed without any 
accident upon the island of Euboea. They took and burned the city 
of Eretria, according to the commandment, and sent home a company 
of chained captives as an earnest of future victories. Thence con- 
ducted by Hippias, they departed, crossed the strait of Euripus, and 
landed on the plains of Marathon. A description of this battle will be 
given in the history of Greece. Let it suffice to say, that the Per- 
sians were totally defeated, that they made a rapid retreat, and that 
Hippias was slain. Thus ended the second attempt upon Greece. 

94. Further Preparations of Darius. — The anger of Darius was 
doubly inflamed against Athens by the event of Marathon, and he 
resolved that the insolent people who had invaded his territories, 
burned his city, abused his heralds, and driven his generals to a 
shameful flight, should feel the full weight of his arm. The prepara- 
tions he now set on foot, were on a vast scale, and demanded a longer 
time. For three years all Asia was kept in a continual stir; in the 
fourth, his attention was distracted by a quarrel between his sons 
respecting the succession, and by an insurrection in Egypt. The 
crown he settled upon Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, daughter of 
Cyrus; but he died before he had finished his preparations against 
Egypt and Athens. He reigned thirty-six years. On his tomb was 
inscribed, " We were able to drink much wine, and to bear it well." 

95. Xerxes the Great, b. o. 486. — By the death of Darius, and the 
accession of Xerxes the Persian, the scepter passed from the hands of a 
prince reared among the privations of a camp, to one born in a palace, 

Que*tion8. — 92. How were the heralds treated who were sent to Athens and Sparta? 
93. What directions followed from Darius to his generals? What did the Persians accom- 
plish? Where did they meet total defeat? What course did the fleet take in Bailing from 
Ephesus to the island of Euboea? (See map No. 2.) From Euboea to Marathon? 94. 
How did the disaster at Mnrathon affect Darius ? W r hat quarrel distracted his attention 
from military preparations? Who was Xerxes? How and when did he become king? 
How long had Darius reigned ? What was inscribed upon his tomb? 95. What is said of 
the early life of Xerxes in contrast with that of Darius ? 



B.C. 486.] THE GRECIAN WAR PROJECTED. 65 

the favorite son of a favorite queen, who had been nurtured in luxury, 
and taught to look upon the kingdom as an inheritance to which the 
blood of Cyrus gave him a pre-eminent claim. Xerxes was not natu- 
rally ambitious, but his flatterers persuaded him that it was absolutely 
necessary for him to carry out the 'great projects which his father had 
left unfinished. The Egyptians were first punished. He invaded the 
country in person, and purposely made the yoke of the inhabitants 
more galling than before. Stimulated by this success, he resolved on 
the invasion of Greece. 

96. A council was called of the most illustrious persons in the 
empire, before whom he laid his plans. The speech put into his 
mouth by Herodotus, will best display the character and extent of his 
views. "I desire," said he, "to imitate the example of my predeces- 
sors, who all distinguished their reigns by noble enterprises. I ought 
to revenge the insolence of the Athenians, who presumed to fall upon 
Sardis and burn it to ashes. I ought also to revenge the disgrace 
which my country received at the battle of Marathon. I anticipate 
great advantages from a war which may lead to the conquest of 
Europe, the most fertile country in the universe." After thus express- 
ing his desires, and adding various arguments in favor of their being 
carried out, he waited till the others should express their opinions. 

97. Mardonius spoke first, and gave his voice for war, as necessary 
to wipe out the foul blots from the Persian name, and to teach the 
cowardly Greeks the danger of offending the great king. The rest of 
the assembly, seeing how well Xerxes received his brother-in-law's 
adulation, dared not contradict it, with the exception of Artabanus, 
the king's uncle, who endeavored to divert the course of deliberation 
to more serious considerations than the glory of the expedition. But 
Xerxes, who could not bear contradiction, gave his faithful adviser a 
severe rebuke, and told him that he should be punished by being left 
among the women, whom he resembled in cowardice. The war was 
therefore resolved upon. 

98. Peeparations for War. — Xerxes's aim was not merely to col- 
lect a force sufficient to overcome all opposition, but to set his whole 
power in magnificent array, that he might enjoy the sight of it himself, 
and display it to the admiration of the world. For four years longer 



Questions.— 9o. How was his ambition 'first aroused? What successful enterprise in- 
fluenced him to invade Greece? 96. How, according to Herodotus, did be express his 
desires? 97. For what purpose did Mardonius second the wishes of Xerxes? Who was 
Artabanus? What did he do? What rebuke did he consequently receive? 9S. What war 
like preparations were made during the next four years ? 



(5(5 PERSIA. [b. c. 480 

Asia was kept in restless turmoil : less time would not suffice to pro- 
vide subsistence for the countless host about to be poured upon 
Europe. Besides the stores to be carried by the fleet, magazines were 
to be formed along the whole line of march as far as the confines of 
Greece The most skillful engineers of Phenicia and Egypt were sent 
forward to build a bridge of boats across the Hellespont, and a multi- 
tude of men were dispatched to the Chalcidice to excavate a canal 
through the isthmus which joined Mount Athos to the continent. 
Nay, the "great king" himself honored the mountain with a letter 
couched in these terms: "Athos, thou proud aspiring mountain, that 
liftest thy head to the heavens, be not so audacious as to put rocks 
and stones in my way. If thou i opposest my servants, I will cut thee 
down, and throw thee headlong into the sea." 

99. When these preparations were drawing to a close, Xerxes set 
forth for Sardis, where he designed to spend the winter, and gather 
the multitudes together, who were assembling in all the provinces of 
his vast empire. During his stay in this place, a violent storm drove 
the boats from their moorings, and destroyed the bridge over the 
Hellespont. Xerxes, enraged at the loss of so much time and labor, 
put the architects to death, and caused chains to be thrown into the 
sea to teach it submission. Another bridge was speedily commenced 
of double rows of boats; one for the army, and the other for the 
baggage. This bridge was made by chaining together 674 vessels, and 
fastening them at each end by cables thrown over strong piles driven 
into the earth. Massive anchors were dropped from the sides to hold 
them in their places ; flat-bottomed boats, lashed firmly together, 
formed a floor above, and battlements were erected on each side to 
prevent the cattle from being frightened by the violence of the waves. 
The length of the bridge was not far short of a mile. 

100. Xeexes's MAEcn. — Early in the spring (b. o. 480), Xerxes 
began his march from Sardis with the mighty armament which had 
been collected from Media, Persia, and all the tributary nations, a 
motley crowd, including many strange varieties of complexion, dress, 
and language, each tribe retaining its national armor and mode of 
fighting. There were recruits from all the different people who were 
allied with Croesus against Cyrus the Great. There was the Immortal 
Ba&d; there the Median cavalry; there the Persian lancers, with 

Questions.— 98. What letter is mentioned ? 99. To what place did Xerxes then go to 
spend the winter? What misfortune took place while he was there? What did Xerxes 
thereupon do? Describe the second bridge. 100. Give a description of the great army of 
Xerxes. 



B. C. 480.] THE ROYAL PROGRESS. 67 

spears knobbed with gold ; there the sacred horses richly caparisoned ; 
and there the royal chariot where Xerxes sat in state, except when, 
fatigued with riding, he sheltered himself from the heat of the sun in 
an easier carriage. The fleet coasted along the Egean, and the army 
moved forward to Abydos, a city of Bithynia, near the straits. 

101. Here Xerxes, desirous to witness a mock sea-fight, ascended a 
lofty throne and beheld, as far as the eye could reach, the bosom of 
the Hellespont crowded with his ships, and the plains and mountains 
of ancient Ilium covered with his troops. A feeling of pride and satis- 
faction spread through his heart as he surveyed the glittering array, 
and reflected that, at the head of the largest army ever brought into 
the field, he was about to subjugate the fairest portion of the earth. 
But a sudden shade passed over his countenance : for a moment the 
pomp and pageantry of the mustered hosts faded from his view : " In 
one hundred years' time," said he, " not one living soul will remain of 
all the thousands who now surround me;" and the monarch, throned 
in power and pride, wept at the thought. 

102. Passing the Beidge. — As soon as the sun's first rays appeared 
upon the horizon, the bridge was strown with myrtle, and sprinkled 
abundantly with sweet odors. Then Xerxes poured out libations into 
the sea, and, turning his face to the rising sun, implored the protection 
and guidance of the great god Mithras, till he should complete the 
conquest of Europe. After golden vessels and a sword had been 
thrown into the sea, the ten thousand Immortals, crowned with chap- 
lets, advanced upon the bridge. The army followed as rapidly as pos- 
sible, the officers lashing the poor soldiers all the way to quicken their 
speed ; yet so vast was the multitude that the living tide flowed without 
interruption seven days and seven nights before the last man, Xerxes 
himself, the tallest and most majestic person in all that host, had 
arrived upon the European shore. 

103. In the great plain of Doriscus, on the banks of the Hebrus, an 
attempt was made to number the army. Ten thousand men were 
formed in as small a space as possible. A fence was then raised around 
them ; they were dismissed, the inclosure filled again and again, till 
all had passed within the circle ; and according to this muster the 
infantry alone amounted to 1,700,000. The cavalry was counted by 

Questions. — 100. How did the fleet and army proceed ? Where was Abydos? (See map 
No. 2.) 101. What took place near Abydos? What feeling pervaded his mind in view 
of his greatness? What moral sentiment even then subdued the haughty monarch to 
tears? What waters did the Hellespont connect? (See map No. 2.) 102. Describe the 
crossing of Ine Hellespont. 103. Of how many persona did the army of Xerxes consist? 
What method was adopted to number them? 



68 PERSIA. [b. c. 480 

divisions, and the mariners by the number which each ship carried, and 
the whole exceeded two millions and a half of fighting men. The 
women and servants who always attended the Persian camp could 
not be less than as many more, so that the whole body was estimated 
at five millions. 

104. To feed this multitude with only the scanty portion allowed 
to slaves, required 662,000 bushels of flour per day ; yet such prepara- 
tions had been made that, with the provisions laid up in the magazine? 
and those carried by the vessels of burden, there was no lack of any 
thing in the camp. Avant, couriers had been sent out to prepare for 
the coming of the lord of Asia. Wherever the royal train halted a 
superb pavilion was erected, adorned with the most costly furniture. 
Many cities of Europe, anxious to propitiate the mighty power moving 
through their territories, provided even vessels of gold and silver for 
the table. The rapacious attendants of the Persian court spared 
nothing ; in the morning, when the army marched, all was carried off. 
In this manner Xerxes continued his course till he reached the spot 
where Demaratus, a banished Lacedemonian king, had told him he 
would find his whole army stopped by a handful of men. 

105. Thermopylae. — Thermopylae is a narrow pass of Mount (Eta, 
about fifty paces broad. On one side roared the sea ; on the other 
rose. the precipitous mountain. Through this narrow defile lay the 
path of the Persians, and an army could scarcely reach Attica by any 
other route. When Xerxes came to this place, he found the truth of 
Demaratus's words. A band of heroes were stationed here, determined 
to give such an impression of Grecian valor as should teach the 
haughty Persians the character of the men they had come to enslave. 
Xerxes waited four days, hoping to frighten them away, or bribe 
Leonidas, their leader, to betray his country. He waited in vain, and 
Leonidas rejected his offers with scorn. 

106. On the fifth day he ordered a body of Median cavalry to fall 
upon the rash and insolent enemy, and lead them all captive into his 
presence. A throne was erected for him, from which he could survey 
the narrow entrance of the pass, and the prowess of his soldiers. Their 
numbers served only to impede their efforts; the foremost fell, the 
hinder advanced over their bodies to the charge ; their repeated onsets 

Questions. — 103. How many women and servants were along? How many persons, then, 
were there in all? 104. What is said of provisions for the camp? Of occurrences during 
the march of the army? From whom had erxes received a warning? What was the 
warning? 105. What is Thermopylae? Describe it. Where was it located? (See map 
No. 2.) What did Xerxes find there? For what did Xerxes wait in vain? 106. What 
occurred on the fifth day ? 



b. c. 4S0.J THERMOPYLil. ($9 

broke upon the Greeks idly as waves upon the rock. The day wore 
on ; and, spent with fatigue, and greatly thinned in their ranks, the}- 
were recalled from the contest. The despised Greeks were now 
thought worthy to cope with the Immortals, and all the next day the 
impatient monarch saw with grief and rage the slaughter of his own 
body-guard. Three times he started from his throne, as though about 
to chastise the intrepid Spartans with his own hand for the havoc 
they were making in his chosen band. 

107. The day following, the attack was renewed with no better suc- 
cess, and the confidence of Xerxes was changed to gloom and despon- 
dency, when an inhabitant of the country revealed to him a secret 
path over the mountain. A party was immediately sent out with the 
traitor, and by daybreak the next morning the Grecians learned that 
the Persians were coming over the brow of the mountain, and before 
noon the devoted band of Spartans were attacked in front, and rear 
by the whole power of Xerxes. They fought desperately to the last, 
and were finally overwhelmed by the arrows, javelins, and stones of 
the enemy. Where they fell they were buried ; their tomb, as the 
poet sang, was an altar; a sanctuary, in which Greece revered the 
memory of her second founders. Xerxes lost 20,000 men in this 
engagement, and his fleet also suffered the same day a severe defeat 
off Cape Artemisium. 

108. Detachment sent to Delphi. — Xerxes had heard so much 
of the wealth of Delphos, that he thought to enrich himself by the 
plunder of its treasures. A detachment was accordingly sent across 
the Parnassian mountains, to bring away the vessels of gold and silver 
deposited there. The Delphians, hearing of its approach, asked coun- 
sel of the oracle. The Pythia responded, " The arms of Apollo will 
be sufficient for the defense of his shrine." Thus encouraged, no pre- 
parations were made to resist the enemy. As the Persians were 
marching through the dark and deep defiles of the mountains, a violent 
storm arose, the wind prostrated huge trees across their path, the 
mountain torrents loosened rocks and stones, and poured them down 
upon them with a mingled tide of earth and water; the Delphians 
added their wild cries to the howling of the storm; and the thunder, 
repeated by a thousand echoes, completed their consternation. They 



s.— 106. On the sixth? 107. On the seventh? What treason occurred? De- 
scribe what followed. How ninny men did Xerxes lose? What other loss did he sustain ? 
W here was Cape Artemisium ? (See map No. 2.) 10S. By what means did Xerxes expect to 
enrich himself at Delphi ? Where was Delphi ? (See map No. 2.) Give an account of the 
march and overthrow of the detachment. 



70 PERSIA. [b. C. 48U. 

fled, or fell, overcome with terror ; they trampled one upon another ; 
they became entangled in the forest or were thrown down precipices* 
and but few of them ever returned to tell the tale of their disaster. 

109. Bukning of Athens. — Meantime, the rest of the Persians ad- 
vanced through Beotia* to Attica. No troops came out to dispute their 
passage. Xerxes thought he had not calculated in vain upon the 
cowardice of the Grecians. "When he reached Athens, the streets 
were deserted. With the exception of a few old people, devotees and 
priests, who had taken shelter in the citadel, every person had escaped 
to the islands of Egina and Salamis. Xerxes plundered the temples, 
stormed the citadel, and reduced the city to ashes. The pictures and 
statues which the refined Athenians had spent years in executing, he 
sent to his uncle Artabanus, with the glad tidings that Athens had 
shared the fate of Sardis. 

110. Battle of Salamis. — In the narrow strait between Attica and 
Salamis, the little fleet of the Greeks awaited the storm of war which 
was slowly rolling round the promontory of Sunium. The Persians 
advanced with their numerous vessels, and filled up the port of Pha- 
lereum. In the consternation and agony of seeing their city burned, 
and their bay crowded with hostile ships, many of the Greeks advo- 
cated the propriety of moving down to the vicinity of Corinth, and 
awaiting the enemy there ; but Themistocles induced them to give 
battle there, and thus the engagement took place in a strait so narrow 
that the Persians could scarcely turn their ships, but were forced to 
tight hand to hand. From a lofty eminence, Xerxes again beheld his 
troops repulsed by the hardy Greeks ; many of his ships were 
entangled and sunk, and his disheartened soldiers retired in the great- 
est disorder. 

111. That night the whole fleet abandoned the coast of Attica, and 
sailed away for the Hellespont. Mardonius, who perceived that Xerxes 
was desirous of escaping from the dangers and mortifications which 
surrounded him, proposed that the king should return to Asia with the 
body of the army, leaving himself, with 300,000 of the best troops, to 
complete the conquest of Greece. To this proposal the monarch 
gladly assented. Xerxes, having passed into Thessaly, permitted Mar- 

Questions— -109. In what direction was Beotia from Thermopylae? (See map No. 2.) 
How is Athens situated? What did Xerxes find on reaching Athens? What acts did he 
commit at Athens? What tidings did he send to his uncle? 111). In which direction was 
the islnnd of Salamis from Attica? (See map No. 2.) What account can you give of the 
disaster to the Persian navy? By what name is that battle known * 111. What then was 
done by the fleet? What proposition was made to Xerxes? What prompted Mardonius 
to make it? To what place did Xerxes then retreat? Where is Thessaly? (See map No. 2.1 
* Also writteD Bceotia. 



B.C. 465.] THE ROYAL RETREAT 71 

donius to select his soldiers, and leaving them to winter there, pursued 
his march toward Asia. " Widely different from the appearance of 
the glittering host which a few months before had advanced over the 
plains of Macedonia and Thrace to the conquest of Greece, was the 
aspect of the crowd which was now hurrying back along the same 
road. The splendor, the pomp, and the luxury and ease were ex- 
changed for disaster and distress, want and disease." The contents of 
the magazines had been destroyed or purloined by those who had the 
charge of them ; comfortable food was not to be obtained ; and as the 
retreating multitude passed those places, impoverished by their recent 
visit, they were forced to subsist upon the bark and leaves of trees. 

112. Sickness came with famine; great numbers were left to the 
charity of their enemies ; and when they reached the river Strymon, 
numbers still greater were drowned in attempting to pass upon the 
ice, which the sun was fast melting away. In forty-five days after he 
left Mardonius, Xerxes reached the Hellespont. The rebellious sea 
had torn his vessels from their anchors, and dashed in pieces the bridge 
which it had cost so much time and labor to construct ; but the fleet 
(or what remained of it) was there, to transport the poor fragment of 
his army to Abydos. The exploits of Mardonius will be recounted 
in the history of Greece. The life of Xerxes, after this inglorious 
campaign, may be told in a few words. He gave himself up to 
a round of pleasures, and was slain by Artabanus, captain of his 
guards, b. c.465. 

113. Artaxerxes Ascends tiie Throne. — Xerxes had four sons : 
Darius, Hystaspes, Artaxerxes, and Achasmenes. When Artabanus 
left the chamber of the murdered monarch, he went directly to that 
of Artaxerxes, and, awakening him from sleep, told him that his brother 
Darius had assassinated his father. The youth immediately arose, 
and without waiting to inquire into the affair, hastened to his brother's 
bed and killed him. Artabanus having thus got rid of Xerxes and 
Darhis, proclaimed Artaxerxes king, thinking he would prove a con- 
venient tool, till a faction could be formed strong enough to place the 
crown upon his own head ; but the young prince, suspecting the game 
his pretended friend was playing, ordered him to execution. By this 
time, intelligence of his father's death had reached Hystaspes, governor 

Questions. — 111. What comparison is made? What is said of the destitution that ex- 
isted? 112. Of sickness? Numbers left? Of what occurred at the Strymon ? Where 
was the Strymon? (See map No. 2.) What had occurred at the Hellespont? How, 
then, did Xerxes get to Abydos ? What further account can you give of Xerxes ? 113. How 
many sons did Xerxes have? Give their names. By what means did Artaxerxes obtain the 
throne ? 



72 PERSIA. [b. c. 460. 

of Bactria, who consequently prepared to assert his right to the crown. 
Two battles were fought by the rival brothers ; in the last of which 
Hystaspes was slain. Artaxerxes thus gained quiet possession of the 
throne of Persia, b. o. 473. He was called Artaxerxes Longimanus, 
from the length of his arms. 

114. The Egyptian Revolt. — b. o. 460. — The Egyptians always 
wore the yoke of Persia uneasily ; and in this year, having made Ina- 
rus, prince of the Lybians, their king, they revolted. Artaxerxes 
sent his brother Achremenes, with 300,000 men, to reduce them to 
obedience. It fared ill with the Persians at first. The Athenians 
made alliance with the Egyptians, and Achsemenes was slain with one- 
third of his army. The other 200,000 Persians made their escape to 
Memphis, where they entrenched themselves in a part of a city called 
the White Wall. There the Egyptians besieged them three years. 
As soon as practicable, Artaxerxes fitted out another army to go to 
the relief of his unfortunate subjects. While Artabasus sailed up the 
Nile, with a part of the troops, Megabysus (son of Zopyrus, who gained 
Babylon) advanced with his division by land to Memphis. 

115. The tables were now turned. Defeat followed Inarus and his 
allies, while victory crowned the efforts of the Persians. The besiegers 
were in their turn besieged in Biblos, a city built between two arms 
of the Nile. Eor a year and a half the Persians maintained the 
blockade ; and finally, by draining one of the encircling arms, opened 
a passage to the city. Inarus then surrendered, with fifty of his Athe- 
nian friends, on the solemn promise of Megabysus that their lives 
should be spared. The rest of the Grecians had free permission to 
leave the country, and the Egyptians were again reduced to servitude. 
Artaxerxes kept Inarus and the Athenians five years as prisoners of 
war, during which time his mother importuned him daily to deliver 
them into her hands, that she might sacrifice them to the manes of 
her son Achsemenes. Overcome by her entreaties, the king finally 
yielded, and the inhuman princess put them all to a cruel death. 

116. Megabysus felt this contempt of his solemn oath most keenly. 
He left the court, retired to his government of Syria, and finally openly 
revolted. After overcoming the armies sent against him, and in all 
things showing himself superior to his sovereign, he was at last per- 

Questions. — 113 Why was he called Artaxerxes Longimanus? 114. Why did the Egyp- 
tians revolt from Persia? Who was their king? Who were sent against the Egyptians? 
What became of them? Where was Memphis? (See map No. 1.) 115. In what manner 
were the tables turned upon the Egyptians? Upon what condition did Inarus surrender? 
Was the condition faithfully complied with? State how it was not. 110. Why was 
Megabysus displeased ? What course did he pursue ? 



b. c. 424.] SUCCESSORS OF ART A XERXES. 73 

snaded to return to his allegiance by his wife Amytis, sister of Arta- 
xerxes. But in hunting with the king one day, like the son of Gobryas, 
he killed a wild beast, which the monarch had roused from the thicket. 
Though by this act he saved the life of his royal master, yet he was 
condemned to die for a breach of court etiquette. His wife again inter- 
posed, and prevailed upon her brother to commute his punishment 
into banishment. After remaining five years in lonely exile, he dis- 
guised himself as a leper, and repaired to Susa, where his wife recog- 
nized him, and by entreaties again restored him to royal favor, which 
he enjoyed till his death. He was a man of the greatest abilities, and 
the ablest general in all Persia. 

117. Historians. — In the reign of Artaxerxes, Esdras, Nehemiah, 
and Ezra were sent to Jerusalem. They arranged the books of Scrip- 
ture in their present order, composed the books of Chronicles, and 
those bearing their own names. While engaged in this important 
business, Herodotus commenced his works, so that profane history 
took the seal of authenticity about the time that the sacred writers 
closed their labors. Herodotus was followed by Xenophon, Diodorus, 
Livy, Tacitus, and others whose works still exist in the original Greek 
and Latin. This Artaxerxes is supposed to have been the husband of 
Esther. 

Read Neh. i. entire; and ii. 1-8; al6o xiii. 6, 7. Ezra vii. 1, 6, 7, 3, 11, 12-26; and viii. 
31, 32 ; al6o Ebther x. entire. 

118. Xerxes II. b. o. 425. — Xerxes was the only legitimate son of 
Artaxerxes; but it was his misfortune to have seventeen half-brothers, 
one of whom, Sogdianus, followed the newly elected monarch to his 
apartment, and killed him while overcome with wine. He reigned 45 
days. Sogdianus then, b. c. 424. assumed the royal tiara, to wear it 
only about six months. All his brothers envied him, and he feared all 
his brothers. Ochus, governor of Hyrcania, to escape the death which 
Sogdianus threatened him, openly declared himself the avenger of 
Xerxes's blood. The nobility joined him ; Sogdianus was taken pris- 
oner, and thrown into a cylinder filled with ashes, which was made to 
revolve till he was suffocated. He reigned 195 days. 

119. Ocnus, or Darius Nothus. — b. o. 424. — As soon as Ochus 
ascended the throne, he took the name of Darius, to which the Greeks 

Questions. — 116. Give a farther account of him. 117. What historians were sent to 
Jerusalem during the reign of Artaxerxes ? What did they accomplish while there ? Who 
commenced writing profane history at that time ? By whom was Herodotus followed ? 
Whose husband was Artaxerxes supposed to have been ? 118. Give a sketch of the life of 
Xerxes II. Of Sogdianus. What was there peculiar in Persian punishments ? 119. When 
did Ochus ascend the throne ? What name did he assume ; and wh.it was added ? 
4 



74 PERSIA. [b. c. 404. 

added Nothus— illegitimate. Troubles in Asia Minor, Egypt, Arabia, 
and Media would have kept Darius in a constant state of anxiety, had 
not Parysatis, the queen, contrived to engage him in a continual round 
of pleasures, while wars were carried on in all these places by the 
Persian generals. Tissaphernes, satrap of Sardis, and Pharnabaces, 
governor of Bithynia, intermeddled constantly with the affairs of tho 
Greeks, and vast sums were expended to foment the dissensions of 
Athens and Sparta. 

120. At the instigation of Parysatis, Darius finally gave the dominion 
of all Asia Minor to his son Cyrus, a youth of sixteen. Here the 
young prince, to secure the alliance of the Lacedemonians, then 
esteemed the best soldiers in the world, assisted them with money 
and supplies, and assured Lysander, their general, that rather than see 
them want any necessary for carrying on the war with the Athenians, 
he would melt down the throne of gold and silver on which he sat, 
and coin it into money for them. He had an object in this liberality, 
much dearer to him than his friendship for the Lacedemonians. Pa- 
rysatis, not content with seeing her favorite son governor of this exten- 
sive province, besought Darius to declare him heir to the throne 
instead of Arsaces, their oldest child ; but to this Darius would not 
consent. He reigned twenty years. 

121. Abtaxebxes Mnemon. — e. c. 405. — As soon as Arsaces ascend- 
ed the throne, he changed his name to Artaxerxes — Mnemon was after- 
ward added, on account of his astonishing memory. The new king, 
as the custom was, set out for Pasargadae, to be crowned in a temple 
of the goddess of war. The prince to be consecrated must enter that 
temple, put off his own robe, and clothe himself in the one worn by 
Cyrus the Great, before he was king. This garment had been pre- 
served with superstitious reverence more than 150 years Before the 
crown was put upon his head, the sovereign must eat a cake of figs, 
chew some turpentine, and drink a cup of mingled vinegar and milk. 

122. Young Cyrus, driven to desperation at seeing the scepter to 
which his mother had taught him to aspire, transferred to the hands 
of his brother, determined to assassinate him in the temple itself, in 
the presence of the whole court, just as he took off his own to put on 



Questions.— 119. What troubles agitated Persia at that time? 120. What was done at the 
instigation of Parysatis? To whom did Cyrus render assistance? What assurance did 
Cyrus give? What was his object? What proposition did Darius reject? How long was 
he king? 121. When did Arsaces ascend the throne? To what did he change his name ? 
By what name is he known? Relate the particulars of the coronation custom. 12% 
What doi'd of assassination did young Cyrus determine upon? 



B. c. 405.] THE GREEKS AID CYRUS. 75 

the robe of Gyrus. Tissaphernes, having gained intelligence of this 
design, revealed it to Artaxerxes. The rash youth was in consequence 
seized in the temple and condemned to death ; when Parysatis, almost 
out of her senses, flew to the place, clasped him in her arms, bound 
the tresses of her hair about him, and by her tears and entreaties pre- 
vailed on Artaxerxes to pardon him, and send him back to Sardis. 
Cyrus, instead of appreciating the magnanimity of his brother in spar- 
ing his life, and continuing his government, remembered only the 
indignity of his chains, and, in resentment, strengthened himself in 
the determination to overthrow the king. 

123. What Cyrus did in Asia Minor. — The haughtiness and pride 
which had led him, when but a youth, to condemn two persons of 
royal blood for wearing their hands uncovered in his presence, 
were exchanged for the most winning affability. His emissaries at 
court constantly magnified his merits as a statesman and a warrior, 
and many turbulent noblemen stood ready to espouse his cause. It 
was now his turn to solicit favors from the Lacedemonians. He wrote 
to them, promising that " to the foot he would give horses, and to 
the horsemen, chariots; that on those who had farms he would bestow 
villages, and on those who had villages, cities. Their pay, he said, 
should not be counted, but measured out to them. He told them he had 
a greater and more princely heart than his brother; that he was bet- 
ter instructed in philosophy, and that he could drink more wine than 
Artaxerxes without disordering his senses!" 

124. The Lacedemonians, moved by gratitude or avarice, sent a 
scytale to Clearchus, commander of their forces in Asia Minor, with 
orders to obey Cyrus in every thing he demanded ; but they wisely 
affected ignorance of the enterprise in which he was engaged. A 
company of Beotians also joined him, and some Athenians, among 
whom was Xenophon. The better to conceal his design, Cyrus gave 
out that his expedition was directed against the Pisidians. Tissa- 
phernes, rightly judging that several hundred thousand men would 
not be collected for so slight an occasion, set out post from Miletus to 
inform Artaxerxes of what was going forward. 

125. This news occasioned great trouble at court. Paiysatis and 
all her favorites were looked upon as holding intercourse with the 
rebel. Statira, the queen, continually loaded her with reproaches. 

Questions.— 122. How was it prevented? What followed ? Was Cyrus grateful to hia 
brother? 123. What policy did Cyrus pursue ? What promises did he make ? What infor- 
mation did he add ? 124. Of whom was the army of Cyrus composed ? How did Artaxerxes 
get information of Cyrus's design? 125. What suspicions rested upon Parysatis ? 



76 PERSIA. [B. c. 401 

"Where is now," said she, "that faith which you have so often 
pledged for your son's behavior? ■ Your unhappy fondness has 
kindled this war, and plunged us into an abyss of misfortunes." 
Parysatis replied with equal warmth, and their hatred finally became 
so great that they could not dwell together in one palace. 

126. Meantime, Cyrus set out from Sardis with an army amount- f 
ing to nearly 300,000 men. When they reached Tarsus, the Greek 
soldiers, suspecting their destination, refused to go farther; but the 
persuasions of Clearchus, and the powerful eloquence of an extra gold 
piece, added by Cyrus to their pay, finally induced them to proceed 
in search of the enemy, which Cyrus said he expected to meet near 
Babylon. From Cilicia they passed on through Syria, forded the 
river Euphrates at Thapsacus, meeting with no opposition till they 
reached the plain of Cunaxa. 

127. Battle of Cunaxa. — All the country through which they 
marched was so quiet, that Cyrus supposed his brother feared to meet 
him in the field. Under this impression, he traveled leisurely along, 
armed only with a saber, and attended by a small guard. When about 
75 miles from Babylon, a horseman came up at full speed, crying out 
that the enemy were approaching. In an instant all was hurry and 
confusion; Cyrus leaped from his chariot, buckled on his armor with 
the greatest dispatch, and, without giving his army time for refresh- 
ment, arrayed them for the conflict. Clearchus with his Greeks occu^ 
pied the right wing, the barbarian mercenaries the left, and Cyrus, 
with a band of six hundred horse, took his position in the center. All 
things were ready about noon, and the soldiers stood there in battle 
array three hours. 

128. At length, when both their patience and strength were nearly 
exhausted, a great cloud of dust appeared like a white cloud, and soon 
spread itself densely over the whole plain ; the steady tramp of sol- 
diers, and the clattering of horses' hoofs were heard, and, not long 
after, the glittering of helmets, lances, and standards, proclaimed the 
approach of the royal forces. Tissaphernes led up the left wing op- 
posite Clearchus; and Artaxerxes, supported by the flower of his 
army, took his post almost in front of his brother. When the two 

Questions. — 125. In what words did the queen address her? What was the conse- 
quence ? 126. With how large an army did Cyrus march ? From what place did he 
start? Where was that place? (See map No. 2.) How did Cyrus persuade the Greeks to 
follow him? Where was Tarsus? (15, map 3.) Where was Thapsacus? (29, same map.) 
Cunaxa? (Map No. 3.) 127. How far was Cunaxa from Babylon? What battle occurred 
there? How did Cyrus behave on the morning of the battle? 128. How was the battle 
commenced ? 



B. c. 401.] BATTLE OF CUNAXA. 77 

armies had approached near enough, the Greeks moved forward sing 
ing their loud paaan; and then, striking their darts upon their shields 
to frighten the horses, rushed upon the Persians with ail their force. 
The enemy scarcely waited for the charge^ the horses, maddened by 
the din, wheeled, and pranced with ungovernable fury ; the riders, 
equally frightened, sought safety in flight; and Tissaphernes, with a 
small body of troops, alone maintained his ground. 

129. The attendants of Cyrus, seeing the flight of the Persians, 
proclaimed him king upon the spot; but while the main body remained 
unbroken and his brother lived, Cyrus thought the kingdom still in 
dispute. Keeping his 600 horse in a body, he observed the motion of 
the king, and perceiving him wheeling to the left, charged his guards 
with great impetuosity. The Persians gave way, and the attendants 
of Cyrus dispersed in the pursuit, but with a few nobles he maintained 
his position. At length, discovering the king, he spurred on, crying 
out, "I see the man," and gave him a wound in the breast, at the 
same time that he himself received a blow in the eye from a javelin. 
The two brothers then fought hand to hand, and those about them 
engaged furiously in the defense of each, till Cyrus was slain, and 
eight of his principal friends lay dead upon his body. Artaxerxes 
gave his eunuch, Mesabates, charge to cut off the head and right 
hand of Cyrus, while he collected his followers and plundered his 
brother's camp. 

130. The Greeks returned about dark from the pursuit of the 
fugitives, and, supposing they had gained the victory, put off their 
armor, wondering much that no messenger came from Cyrus to com- 
pliment them upon their valor. The refreshments provided by the 
prince had been carried off by the plunderers, and they were forced 
to retire supperless to rest. In the morning they learned the extent 
of their misfortune. By the messenger who brought them news of 
Cyrus's death they sent word to Ariasus, next in command, that being 
victors, they would make him king ; and while waiting for his answer, 
they killed the oxen of the baggage wagons, and, collecting the broken 
weapons from the field of battle, roasted the flesh and made their 
breakfast. Not long after there came heralds from the king, sum- 
moning them to deliver up their arms. They replied that they would 
die before they would part with them; that if Artaxerxes would 

Questions.— 129. Give a further account of the battle. What orders did Artaxerxes give 
to Mesabates? 130. What did the Greeks learn on the morning after the battle ? To whom 
did they then send word? What word did they send? How did they prepare their 
breakfast? What summons came to them ? What was their reply ? 



73 PERSIA. [b. c. 401. 

receive them into the number of his allies, they would serve him with 
fidelity and valor ; but if he endeavored to reduce them to slavery, ho 
would find them determined to lose their lives and liberty together. 

131. In the mean time the messenger returned from Ariseus, say- 
ing that that general declined the honor intended him, for there were 
so many noblemen in Persia superior to himself, that if Artaxerxes 
were dethroned, he could not expect to reign unmolested. He after- 
ward engaged, by the most solemn oaths, to conduct them to their 
own country without fraud, and the bond was ratified by dipping 
their spears in the blood of animals slain for the purpose. It was also 
agreed to return home by a. more northern route, to avoid the king's 
army and gain provisions. They accordingly withdrew from that 
place, and rested three days in some little villages, where they were 
visited by Tissaphernes and several of the Persian grandees. 

132. Treachery of Tissaphernes. — Tissaphernes began his story 
by telling them that, being a neighbor of Greece, and seeing them 
surrounded with dangers, he had used his good offices with the king 
to obtain permission to conduct them to their own country ; that the 
king had not granted his request directly, but had sent him to inquire 
why they had taken up arms against him. "We call the gods to 
witness," replied Clearchus, " that we did not enlist ourselves to make 
war with the king. Cyrus, under different pretexts, brought us 
almost hither without explaining himself, and when we found him 
surrounded with dangers, we thought it infamous to abandon him 
after all the favors he had bestowed upon us. As he is dead, we are 
released from our engagement, and have no desire to contest the 
crown witli Artaxerxes, nor to ravage his country, if he does not 
oppose our return." 

133. Tissaphernes said he would acquaint the king with their 
reply, and bring them his answer. He was gone three days, and 
when he came back he told them that the king, after much solicita- 
tion, had appointed him to the government of Sardis, and had given 
them permission to depart under his safe conduct, and if they would 
wait till he had settled his affairs at court, they would set out to- 
gether. These arrangements were confirmed by an oath on both 
sides. The Greeks waited very impatiently twenty days, every day 

Questions.— 131. What was the reply of Ariaeus? What agreement did Ariseus enter 
into ? By whom were the Greeks visited ? 132. What story did Tissaphernes tell? Who 
replied on the part of the Greeks? What reply did he make? 133. What did Tissaphernea 
say to this? How long was he gone? What message did he bring? How long did the 
Greeks then wait? 



b. c. 401.] RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND. 79 

becoming more distrustful of his intentions, and more suspicious 
of Ariasus, who had been freely pardoned by the king. Finally, 
Tissaphernes arrived with a body of troops, and they all inarched on 
together ; but they had too good reasons for being enemies to confide 
entirely in each other's truth. Occasions of distrust occurred daily 
as they advanced to the head waters of the Tigris, and at last Tissa- 
phernes, having invited the Greek officers to a conference, put them 
all to death. Soon after, Ariasus rode up to the Greeks, and de- 
manded their arms in the king's name. 

134. b. c. 400. — Nothing could exceed the consternation of the 
Greeks at this tragical turn in their affairs. In the words of another, 
"All gave themselves up to despair. They felt that they were still 
2,000 miles from the nearest part of Greece, close to the vast armies of 
the king, and surrounded on all sides by tribes of hostile barbarians, 
who would supply them with nothing but at the expense of blows and 
blood ; they had no guide acquainted with the country, no knowledge 
of the deep and rapid rivers which intersected it, and no cavalry to 
explore the road or cover their rear on the march. As if discipline 
and hope had ended together, the roll-call was scarcely attended to ; 
the watch-fires were scantily, or not at all supplied ; and even their 
principal meal was neglected; where chance led, they threw them- 
selves down to rest, but not to sleep — for sleep was banished by 
thoughts of that country and those friends whom they no longer 
expected to behold again." 

135. Xenophon. — But there was among them a man, Xenophon, 
hitherto distinguished only by his love of the instructions lie had 
received in the school of Socrates, who now felt the native energies of 
his mind roused to meet the critical emergency into which they were 
thrown. After a vain endeavor to sleep, he rose at midnight, awaked 
some of the principal men, and, representing to them the ignominious 
death which would certainly follow submission, exhorted them to elect 
new officers, and pursue their route. This measure was resolved 
upon. Five generals were chosen, of whom Xenophon was one; the 
army was assembled, and encouraged by all the cheering suggestions 
which the desperateness of their circumstances would admit, and by 
break of day they were ready to set off. 



Questions.— 133. What is said of Ariseus? What treacherous act did Tissaphernes commit? 
What Arianis ? 134. What is said of the consequent consternation of the Greeks? How did 
they reason about their condition ? How did they act? 135. Who at last inspired them 
with new courage? In what way did he do so? What was consequently done? 



SO PERSIA. [b. c. 401. 

136. Retreat of the Ten Thousand. — It were long to tell how 
often these determined veterans were forced to turn back, when a 
deep and rapid river rolled across their path ; how many times they 
were obliged to make a long and tedious circuit around the base of 
some huge mountain ; how many skirmishes they fought with the 
barbarians, through whose territories they passed; how often they 
were compelled to halt and form in battle-line to repel the assaults of 
the treacherous Tissaphernes, who, with the forces of Artaxerxes, 
hung upon their rear ; how much they suffered from cold and hunger ;. 
what murraurings, discontents, and jealousies arose; how many died 
of hardship and fatigue; and how many, in utter despair of again 
seeing their native land, yielded to their hard fate, and were left un- 
buried upon the plains of Asia. 

137. In passing through Armenia, they encountered vast snow- 
banks, into which they sunk at every step ; they also suffered intensely 
from a violent north wind ; many lost their sight by the painful glare 
of the snow; and numbers perished with the cold. Sometimes, how- 
ever, they came to little villages, where the inhabitants treated them 
kindly, supplied them with provisions, and suffered them to rest after 
their fatigues. Marching on thus, through dangers by flood and field, 
for many a long and weary month, they ascended at length a very 
high mountain, and turning their eyes to the west, beheld, far in the 
distant horizon, the dark waters of the Euxine. At once a glad shout 
burst from every lip : " The sea ! the sea !" was repeated by a thousand 
voices; the soldiers embraced their officers with tears of joy, and then 
running to the top of the hill, and piling up a great heap of stones, 
raised a trophy of broken armor taken from the different enemies they 
had overthrown in their long and toilsome march. 

138. The remaining perils of their journey were encountered with 
buoyant spirits; and when they reached Trebizond, they encamped 
thirty days to perform the vows they had made in the hours of dis- 
tress, and to celebrate the Olympic games. In this place they sepa- 
rated, a part embarking by sea, and a part continuing their journey by 
land ; they reunited, however, at the Thracian Bosphorus, and cross- 
ing over to Byzantium, found themselves once more upon European 



Questions.— 136. The retreat that followed is called what? What difficulties did " the ten 
thousand" encounter? 137. What did they encounter in Armenia? How were they treated 
at villages? Relate the events that took place on the mountain. Where was the Euxine 
Sea? (See map No. 3.) What is the Euxine called now? Ans. The Black Sea. 133. 
Where is Trebizond ? (Map No. 3.) Where was Byzanium ? (No. 2.) What is Byzantium 
now called. Ans. Constantinople. What was Trebizond once called? Ans. Trapezus. 



b. c. 401.] THE QUEEN'S VICTIMS. 81 

soil. Xenophon computes, that from Ephesus, where they enlisted, to 
Cunaxa, where the battle was fought, was ninety-three days' march ; 
from Cunaxa to Byzantium was something more ; and the time taken 
by the Greeks, going and returning, was fifteen months. This retreat 
of "The Ten Thousand" has never had a parallel in the annals of war, 
and to this day it stands upon the pages of history as the most perfect 
model of an enterprise formed with valor, conducted with prudence, 
and executed with success. 

139. Vengeance of Paetsatis. — To return to the alfairs of the 
Persian court. Artaxerxes claimed the honor of having given Cyrus 
his death-wound ; but a Carian soldier insisted that he himself had 
dispatched the pretender, as he was feebly attempting to rise after 
being unhorsed. Artaxerxes, having tried various ways in vain to 
stop his boasting, delivered him over to Parysatis as the murderer of 
her son. She caused him to be tortured ten days, and put to death 
by having melted brass poured into his ears. Mithridates, an officer 
of distinction, who also had a chare in the death of the young prince, 
was next marked out as an object of the queen's vengeance. He was 
sentenced to the punishment of the troughs, a species of torture too 
horrid for description ; and lingered out seventeen days in inexpressi- 
ble agony. 

140. The eunuch Mesabates, at the command of his king, had cut 
off the head and right hand of Cyrus ; but as he stood high in the 
favor of Artaxerxes, Parysatis knew not how to accomplish his de- 
struction. Nevertheless, what she could not effect by open accusation, 
she brought about by patient ingenuity. She made use of every art to 
win the confidence of her son, humored all his whims, ministered to 
his pleasures, and spent hours with him in playing dice. One day she 
allowed him to win a large sum of money from her, and then, pretend- 
ing to be very much chagrined at her loss, offered to play with him 
for a eunuch. Artaxerxes assented, and Parysatis, exerting all her 
skill, won the game. She seized upon Mesabates as the forfeit, and 
before the king learned her purpose, caused him to be flayed alive. 

141. Death of Statira. — But Parysatis was not satisfied. She had 
her eye upon a more beautiful and more illustrious victim, who was so 
intrenched in the affections of Artaxerxes, that she could not hope to 
supplant her. This was Statira, whose charms she had always envied, 

Questions. — 138. What computation did Xeuophon make? What is said of the famous 
retreat? 139. What claim did Artaxerxes make ? Was his claim disputed ? How was the 
offender disposed of? Give the account of Mithridates. 140. Give the account of Mesa- 
bates. 141. Was Parysatis then satisfied? Who was selected to be the next victim ? 
4* 



82 PERSIA. [B. C. 361 

and whose influence over her son had long before excited her hatred. 
To cloak her design the more effectually, she feigned a reconciliation 
with her daughter-in-law, exchanged visits with her, and often invited 
her to sup in her apartment. The two queens appeared to be on the 
most friendly terms, but the fear of poison kept them constantly 
uneasy, and they would never eat except from the same dishes. But 
Parysatis could not be foiled. One day at table, she took a nicely 
dressed bird, cut it in two, and giving one-half to Statira, eat the other 
herself. 

142. Immediately after, Statira was seized with the most excruci- 
ating pain, and sending for Artaxerxes, accused Parysatis of having 
poisoned her. Convinced by the dreadful convulsions in which his 
beloved queen expired, Artaxerxes put all the servants of his mother 
to the torture, when Giges confessed that she had poisoned one side 
of the knife with which Parysatis had divided the bird. She was 
punished by having her head crushed between two stones: the wicked 
queen was banished to Babylon. 

143. Peace with Geeece. — Meanwhile Tissaphernes, by intermed- 
dling in the affairs of Sparta and Athens, kept up a continual war in 
Asia Minor, which was finally productive of great honor to Persia. 
The two rival states became so much weakened by their own dissen- 
sions that the Persians gained the advantage of them ; and, in com- 
pelling them to sign the treaty of Antalcidas, wiped out the stain of 
their former defeats, b. o. 387. 

144. Troubles at Home. — b. c. 361. — The end of Artaxerxes's reign 
was filled with troubles and cabals. He was of a sweet and amial la 
disposition, but indolent, and enslaved by the luxuries of the court. 
The satraps of the provinces, abusing his good-nature and infirmities, 
loaded the people with taxes, and made the Persian yoke intolerable. 
Many of the tributary provinces, in consequence, revolted ; but as they 
acted without concert, quarreled among themselves, and betrayed one 
another to the king, the troubles excited by them expired of them- 
selves. Artaxerxes had three sons by his wife, and 150 by his concu- 
bines. The rival interests of so many princes filled the whole court 
with factions. To prevent these disorders, Artaxerxes declared 



Questions.— 141. What course of conduct did Parysatis then pursue ? How at last did 
ehe accomplish her purpose? 142. What measures did Artaxerxes adopt in order to learn 
the cause of his queen's death ? What confession was made ? What was the consequence ? 
1-13. What is said of Tissaphernes ? What was the result to Sparta and Athens? 144. What 
was the general character of Artaxerxes? How many sons did he have? Why did he 
declare Darius his successor? 



b. c. 3G0.] REIGX OP OCHUS. 83 

Darius his successor, and permitted him to wear the royal tiara and 
assume the name of king. 

145. Darius, not satisfied with these marks of favor, formed a 
design against his father's life, in which he engaged fifty of his brothers. 
A day was fixed by these unnatural children for the completion of 
their scheme, but the thing having been related to the old king, he 
caused them to be arrested as they entered his chamber with the in- 
struments of death in their hands. They were all executed as they 
deserved. Ochus, the third legitimate son, then began to entertain 
ambitious thoughts for himself. By assassinating one brother, and 
threatening another into suicide, he removed the obstacles which 
stood between him and the throne, and broke his father's heart. 
Artaxerxes sunk to the tomb overwhelmed by repeated afflictions. He 
reigned 44 years. 

146. Ochus, b. c. 360. — Ocnus desired distinction, and he gained it. 
Of all the monarchs that had e?er disgraced a throne by violence and 
cruelty, he takes the pre-eminence. The vices of his predecessors 
shrank into insignificance when compared with the absolute deformi- 
ties of his character, so that it might be said of him in the words of 
Scripture, "There was none like unto Ochus who sold himself to work 
wickedness." To rid himself at once of all fear of his family, he put 
every member to death, without regard to age, sex, or tender entreaty. 
He caused his own sister, Ocha, to be buried alive, though her 
daughter was his queen. He shut up an uncle with one hundred 
children and grand- children in a court of the palace, and ordered them 
to be shot to death with arrows, merely because the young princes 
were held in high estimation. He treated all who gave him cause for 
uneasiness throughout the empire with the same barbarity, and filled 
every province of Persia with lamentation. 

147. His only expedition of importance was against Egypt, which 
he invaded with complete success. After his return he abandoned 
himself to his pleasures, leaving the affairs of his kingdom to be 
administered by Mentor the Bhodian, and Bagoas his eunuch, an 
Egyptian. Not contented with having dismantled the cities, pillaged 
the houses and temples of Egypt, he carried away the archives of the 
nation, which the priests had so long preserved with pious veneration. 

Questions.— 145. What plot did Darius form? How was it defeated? Who was Ochus? 
What baseness was he guilty of? How long had Artaxerxes been king? 146. Who suc- 
ceeded Artaxerxes on the throne ? What was the character of Ochus? Name some of hia 
barbarous acts. 147. What success attended his arms? To whom did he then leave the 
affairs of his kingdom? 



84 PERSIA. [b. c. 336. 

In addition to his impiety, he had caused the god Apis to be served 
up at dinner for his household, and had even gone so far as to compel 
Bagoas to eat of it. This the outraged Egyptian never forgave, and it 
is said that Ochus died by poison administered by his hand. Nor did 
this satisfy his revenge. He caused another body to be interred 
instead of the king's, and, cutting up the flesh of Ochus in small pieces, 
fed it to cats, and fashioned his bones into handles tor a.mv©s and 
swords, the proper emblems of cruelty, b. c. 338. 

148. When Bagoas had thus disposed of Ochus, he placed Arses, 
the youngest son of the king, upon the throne ; but not finding him so 
convenient a tool as he had anticipated, he caused him to be assas- 
sinated, and bestowed the crown upon Darius Codomanns, one of the 
surviving descendants of that uncle whom Ochus had massacred. The 
Persian empire was now tottering to its fall. The "arms of silver" 
had become enervated by luxury, and their strength had departed ; 
"the ram' 1 had ceased "to push westward and northward and south- 
ward," and quietly reposed "beside the river," whuV the "he-goat" 
was preparing to attack him. 

149. Fall of Persia, b. c. 336. — It was two hundred years from the 
time when the whole eastern world bowed to the yoke of Cyrus the 
Great, that Darius Codomanus clothed himself in the robe of that 
mighty conqueror, and attempted to sway the imperial scepter over 
revolted provinces and effeminate subjects. In the same year Darius 
and Alexander began to reign, the one in the East, the other in the 
West. Darius had scarcely time to discover that Bagoas was plotting 
against his life, and to bring that wicked person to punishment, when 
news was brought to him that Alexander had invaded his dominions. 
It was not till after the battle of Oranicus had been fought, that the 
ill-disciplined forces of the empire were collected to attend their mon- 
arch in his march to repulse the Greek. 

150. In the battle of Issus, Darius was first defeated, and compelled 
to flee with great precipitation. Two years after, in a second battle 
at Arbela, he was again utterly defeated. His intention then was to 
pass through Media, laying waste the country as he went, till he found 
refuge the other side of the Oxus. There he supposed the conqueror 
would leave him unmolested; but his plan was defeated by one of his 

Question*.— 147. What indignity did he force upon Bagoas? How was Bagoas avenged ? 
When did that occur? 143. Who was Arses ? Give the account of him. Who was Darius 
Codomanus ? To what position did he attain? 149. How many years had passed since the 
reign of Cyrus the Great? What feeble imitation was attempted by Darius Codomanus? 
150. How many battles did Darius fight in person ? 



B. C. 330.] 



TIIE ROYAL FAMILIES. 



85 



own satraps, who dethroned him, and carried him off a close prisoner 
to Bactria. Alexander pursued him, and finding escape impossible, 
the treacherous satraps stabbed their king in several places, and left 
him by the road-side weltering in his blood. He was indebted to a 
Macedonian soldier for the last draught of water, and expired, com- 
mitting his body to the conqueror, b. o. 330. 

By the subjugation of all the eastern world to Alexander, Persia 
became a Grecian province. 

Head Dan. viii. 2-7, 20, 21. 

Median Dynasty. 



Cyrus. X'j 





Peesian Dynasty. 
Cambyses. I j 

Cyrus the Great. 
Darius Hystaspes. TJ] J[t\ Cambyses. | 8 I Smer^ 

■4 ®— ffi 

Xerxes the Great. 
Artaxerxes Longimanus. 
Xerxes II. reigned 45 days. 
Sogdianus reigned 195 days. 



Darius Nothus. 
Artaxerxes Mnemon. 



Ochus, a monster of wickedness. 



Darius Codomanus. 
Persia becomes a Grecian province. 



Question. 150. Relate the story of his death. When did that event take place? What 
did 1 ersia then become? 



8G PERSIA. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

1. What can you state of the early history of Persia ? 35 

2. Give an account of Dejoces 35, 36 

3. Of Phraortes 36 

4. Of Cyaxares 36, 37, 38 

5. Give, as far as you can, the history of Media up to the time of 

Cyrus 13, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 

6. Give an account of Cyrus till his 16th year 38, 39 

7. Of Cyrus's first expedition and return home 39, 40 

8. What led to Cyrus's second expedition ? 40 

9. Give an outline of that expedition 41, 42, 43, 44 

10. Describe the preparations for the battle of Thymbra 44-46 

11. Give an account of the battle, and of Panthea's fate 44-48 

12. Give an account of Croesus, king of Lydia 40, 42, 44-48 

13. Why did Cyrus wish to capture Babylon ? 48 

14. Give an account of his operations and success 48, 49 

15. Give his further history till he became king 50. 51 

16. Give his further history till his death 51, 52 

17. Why did Cambyses make war upon Egypt? 52 

18. Give an account of Cambyses's success 52, 53 

19. Of his expedition against the Ethiopians 53, 54 

20. Of his tyranny and cruelty at Memphis 55 

21. Of his cruelty toward Smerdis and Prexaspes 55, 56 

22. Give an account of the true and false Smerdis 55, 56, 57 

23. Describe the taking of Babylon by Darius 58, 59 

24. Give an account of the Scythian expedition 60, 61 

25. Name the important succeeding events 61, 62 

26. What is stated in connection with the burning of Sardis? 62, 63 

27. Name the events till the battle of Marathon 63, 64 

28. The further events, till the death of Darius 64 

29. What preparations were made against Greece ? 65, 66 

30. Give an account of Xerxes's march 66, 67, 68 

31. Of the battle of Thermopylae 68, 69 

32. Of the further movements of Xerxes 69, 70 

33. Of the battle of Salamis and consequences 70, 71 

34. Name the events of the next seven years 71, 72 

35. Give the account of the Egyptian revolt 72, 73 

36. Name the important events succeeding the revolt 73, 74, 75 

37. Name the events connected with young Cyrus 74, 75, 76, 77 

38. Describe the Retreat of the Ten Thousand „ 77-81 

39. Give an account of Ochus S3, 84 

40. What further can yon state of Persia ? 84, 85 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 



Menes, first king of Egypt (B.C. 2700, Lane); (B.C. 3893, 

Lepsius) ; (b. c. 5004, Mariette), Bunsen .... 3623 

The Great Pyramids by Suphis I., about 2400 
Egypt invaded by the Hyksos, or Shepherd kings (B.C. 2114, 

Oppert) ------------ 2080 

The Chaldaean, or Old Babylonian Monarchy, founded, according 

to Gutschmidt and Rawlinson - about 3600 

The Third Dynasty, beginning of Chaldean History - - - 2234 

Shepherd kings completely subdue Egypt ----- 1900 
Settlement of the Israelites in Egypt (Ussher, B. c 1706) ; 

(Poole, b. c. 1867) ; Bunsen ------- 1329 

Time of the Judges in Judaea - - - 1850-1095 
Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt (Poole, b. c. 1652) ; Ussher, 

B. c 1491) ; Bunsen -------- 1314 

The Assyrian Empire founded, ----- about 1450 

The Nineteenth Dynasty in Egypt — Ramses II. (Sesostris), height 

of Egyptian power (Oppert, 1462 b. c.) - - - - - 1409 

Rameses II. opens a Canal from the Nile to Red Sea - .* - - 1311-1260 

Conquest of Babylon by the Assyrians - 1260 

Reign of Saul (b. c. 1097-1058, Oppert) - -1095-1055 

David (b. c. 1058-1019, Opoert) - 1055-1015 

" Solomon (B.C. 1019-978, Oppert) ----- 1015-985 

Revolt of the Ten Tribes (b.c. 928, Oppert) - 985 
The kingdom of Israel to the Captivity of the Ten Tribes by 

Shalmanezer (978-721, Oppert) ------ 985-719 

The kingdom of Judah to the Captivity in Babylon- - - 978-588 
Carthage founded ------- about 872, 985-586 

Semiramis, Queen of Assyria ------- 810-781 

Hosea, last King of Israel - ------- 729-719 

Sennacherib, King of Assyria --.-_. 705-680 

Medes revolt from Assyria - - 740 

Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, the captivity of the Jews - 586 

The Median Monarchy founded 650 

Nineveh taken by the Medes ------- 625 

Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon 604-561 

takes Tyre 585 

Egypt conquered by Assyria 665 

Cyrus, King of Persia 558-529 

Croesus taken prisoner by Cyrus (b. c. 544), Rawlinson - - 554 

Babylon taken by Cyrus 538 

The return of the Jews from Babylon 536 

Cambyses, King of Persia 529-522 

Psammenticus defeated at Pel usium by Cambyses - - - 525 

The End of the Egyptian Monarchy 525 

Cambyses rules over Egypt 525 

Darius I., Kino- of Persia 521-486 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 



B. C. 

Darius I., invades Scvthia 508 

" conquers Thrace and Macedonia ----- 507 

Revolt of the Asiatic Greeks 501 

Sardis burnt by the Greeks - 500 

Xerxes I., King of Persia -------- 486-465 

Artaxerxes I., King of Persia - 465-425 

Egypt revolts from Persia 405 

Persia again establishes her power over Asia Minor - - 412 

Tissaphernes and Pharnabazzus satraps ----- ^ 412 

Artaxerxes II., King of Persia 405-362 

Battle of Cunaxa 401 

War between Sparta and Persia ------- 899-394 

Battle of Cnidus - 394 

Peace of Antalcidas - ' 387 

Artaxerxes III., King of Persia - 359-838 

Egypt and Phoeuicia again annexed to Persia - 346 

Darius III., last King of Persia - 386-330 

FIRST PERIOD. 

Chaldean Ascendency in Western Asia - - about b.c. 2001-1543 

SECOND PERIOD. 

Egyptian Ascendency \n Western Asia - b.c. 1525-1200 

THIRD PERIOD. 

Assyrian Ascendency in Western Asia - - - b.c. 1250-625 

FOURTH PERIOD. 

The Four Great Powers— Babylon, Media, Lydia, Egypt, B.C. 625-558 
(Babylon taken by Cyrus, b. c. 538) ; (Media and Lydia con- 
quered by Cyrus, b. c. 558-554) ; (Egypt conquered by 
Carabyses, b. c. 525). 

FIFTH PERIOD. 

Persian Ascendency in Western Asia, - - - to b.c. 559-333 

TABLE. 
Dates as given by Modern Chronologers. 



Creation - 

Flood - 

Call of Abraham - 

Exodus - - - - 

Destruction of the Temple - 



Ussheb. 



B.C. 

4004 
2349 
1921 
1491 



Clinton. 



b. c. 
4138 
2482 
2055 

1625 
587 



Hales. 



b. c. 
5411 

3155 

2078 
1648 



Poole. 



b. c. 
5421 
3159 
2082 
1625 
586 



-— 




4 2 



45 



r-t^J 









■ > ■ .'■- ■ '. -^ -- -"-- ' 



GREECE. 

SECTION IV. 

Greece, commencing with Its settlement by the children of Javan, about 2000 b. a, and 
«ndiDg with its subjugation by th«s Romans, 146 b. c, continued nearly two millenniums. 

1. We have contemplated the "Head of gold" and "Arms of 
silver, 1 ' described in Nebuchadnezzar's image; we come now to the 
"Body of brass," which comprises a far more interesting and instruc- 
tive portion of history. Assyria and Persia were empires ruled by 
despots, and dependent in a great measure for their prosperity upon 
the individual character of the king; consequently the history of the 
monarch became the history of the nation. A striking deviation from 
this order will be observed in the following pages. Greece was a 
republic. It was settled at different times, in different places, by 
adventurers from different countries. The laws of the different states 
were not the same ; yet a common bond of brotherhood, and a com- 
mon hatred of tyranny, led them to unite in repelling every foreign 
invader, and gave them at one time the dominion of the world. 

2. Though Greece at first possessed only a very small extent of 
territory, yet the advantages of its natural position were very great. 
It was in the center of the most cultivated portions of three quarters 
of the world ; its extensive coasts were indented with numerous bays, 
and furnished with commodious harbors; it was watered in every direc- 
tion by an infinite number of small streams, which, rising in the lofty 
hills, flowed through fertile vales, and imparted a delicious coolness to 
a climate naturally warmer than that of any other part of Europe. Its 
superficial content was 29,600 square miles; not half as large as the 
territory of New England ; yet within this limited space were twenty 
rival states, which for a long period bade defiance to the world, and 
perished only when they turned their arms upon one another. 

Greece. — Section IV. — Questions. — 1. What is said of Nebuchadnezzar's image? Why 
is the history of Greece considered more interesting than that of Assyria and Persia ? What 
was Greece ? What is said of its settlement ? Of its laws ? Why did the Grecian states 
unite ? What was the consequence? 2. What is said of the natural advantages of Greece? 
How large was its territory ? Of how many states did it consist? What is said of then 
power ? Why did they perish ? 



83 GREECE. 

3. A dime, laid upon the southern part of Turkey, in Europe, as 
delineated upon the common maps, would cover all the territory of 
Greece proper, and Macedonia beside ; yet here stood the beautiful 
city of Athens ; here were the vales and groves of Arcadia ; here the 
bloody fields of Marathon and Platea; here was "High Olympus," 
with his neighboring eminences, Pelion and Ossa ; here was lofty 
Parnassus, sheltering the famous temple of Delphi ; here were the 
classic waters of Helicon, and the Oastalian fount ; here all those 
woods, and vales, and streams made sacred by the visits of the gods 
themselves. Here too lived and flourished the wisest philosophers, 
the mightiest heroes, and the most renowned statesmen the world 
ever saw ; and to this comparatively insignificant spot, sculpture, 
painting, poetry, and music lent their magic powers to such a degree, 
that to this day the models of the Grecian school are imitated, but 
not surpassed. 

4. Geography. — "We will consider Greece under four divisions. 

I. — Illyria, Macedonia, and Thrace were not reckoned a part of Greece 
until about the time of Alexander. 

II. — Northern Greece had Thessaly on the east and Epirus on the 
west. 

1. Thessaly, afterwards so celebrated for its cavalry, contained Mts. 
Ossa and Olympus, separated by the delicious vale of Tempe, through 
which flowed the magnificent river Peneus. Here also was the plain 
of Pharsalia, where three very important battles were fought. 

2. Epirus contained the oracle of Jupiter at Dodona. 

5. III. — Of Central Greece or Hellas, 3, 4, 5, 6, were very little 
celebrated. 7. Phocis contained the oracle of Delphi, the city of 
Crissa, and Mt. Parnassus. 8. East Locris contained Thermopylae, 
which is thus described : " At Thermopylae a steep and inaccessible 
mountain rises on the west, and on the east side are the sea and the 

Questions. — 3. What is the illustration in connection with the dime? What city was 
there? Vales and groves? Bloody fields? Eminences? Mountain? Temple? Waters? 
Fount? Woods, vales, and streams? Philosophers, heroes, and statesmen? What is said 
of the sculpture, painting, poetry, and music of Greece ? [The importance of a " geographical 
knowledge of history " cannot he too deeply impressed upon the mind of the student; it is, 
therefore, earnestly requested that every pupil become perfectly familiar with the situation 
of the different states upon map No. 2, and also with the relative position of Greece on the 
maps in general use.] 4. What three states are first mentioned? What is said of them? 
Which of them was farthest east? (See map.; Of what two states was Northern Greece 
composed? (See, also, map.) For what did Thessaly hecome celebrated ? What did it con- 
tain? Epirus? 5. By what name was Central Greece best known? Name the states of 
Central Greece. (See, also, map.) Give the names of those bordering on Northern Greece. 
What did Phocis contain? East Locris? 



GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 89 

marshes. The road is fifty feet wide, hut in the narrowest part there is 
room only-for one carriage." 9. Eubcea, separated from Beotia by tho 
narrow strait of Euripus, had one city, Eretria, which took an active 
part in the Persian wars. 10. Beotia was a large plain shut in by 
mountains. Beside Thebes, the capital, it contained Platea, Leuctra, 
and Cheroneia,* places which will often be mentioned in the course of 
this history. 11. Attica was sixty- three miles long and twenty-five 
broad. Its only city was Athens : Marathon, Eleusis, &c, were only 
villages. 12. Megara was a Dorian colony, subject to Attica. 

6. IV. Peloponnesus. — 13. Corinth was in everybody's way. It 
was the key of Southern Greece, and the hostile armies which passed 
from Hellas into the Peloponnesus frequently laid it waste. The 
citadel of Corinth, Acro-Corinthus, was a lofty rock, clearly visible 
from Athens, a distance of forty miles. 14. Sicyon, the capital of 
Sicyonia, was the oldest settled town in Greece. 15. Acbaia was never 
much distinguished till after the death of Alexander, when its twelve 
cities united to resist the power of Hacedon, and were for a time the 
sole defenders of Grecian liberty. 

7. 16. Elis was the Holy Land of Greece. No wars were allowed 
to violate this sacred soil ; armies in passing through it were deprived 
of their weapons. Here was the temple of Olympian Jove, and here 
all the descendants of Hellen met once in four years to celebrate the 
Olympic games. 17. Arcadia was the country of hills and valleys, of 
flocks and herds. The Arcadians were equally ready to fight for free- 
dom and for money, and generally enlisted on the side which furnished 
the best pay. 18. Argolis took the lead of all the states in the Trojan 
war, and never after. 19. Laconia was the ancient name of Lacede- 
monia, the capital of which was Sparta. The Spartans laid waste and 
subdued (20.) Messenia, very early in the history of Greece. 

8. Mythology. — The religious beliefs and observances of the Greeks, 
constituting their mythology, are intimately connected with the fabu 
lous and poetical portion of their history. The origin of Grecian reli- 
gion has been differently stated by different historians; some asserting 
that it came from Egypt ; others that Phenicia was its parent ; while 
others bid us search in Crete and Samothracia for the authors of those 

Questions.— 5. Eubcea? Beotia? Attica? What is said of Megara? 6. By what nam*i 
was Southern Greece most known ? Why was Corinth in everybody's way ? What is enici 
of Acro-Corinthus? Of Sicyon? Of Achaia? 7. What is said of Elis? Of Arcadia? 
Of Argolis? Of Laconia? Of Messenia? [The teacher is requested to give out the nuin 
bers, and permit the pupil, with his eyes fixed upon the map, to describe the states. 
8. What constituted the mythology of the Greeks? What is stated in relation to the origil 
of Orr.-uian rcl'^iou ? * Abo written Cheronaea and Chajroneu. 



90 GREECE. 

fables which peopled " Old Olympus" with all the deities of the Pan- 
theon. These fables, whether invented by the natives or introduced 
by foreigners, were spread throughout Greece in the form of traditions, 
till the poets collected and arranged them into one uniform system, 
which the beauty of their verses caused to be universally adopted. 

9. According to this system, the beginning of all things was Chaos 
— a heterogeneous mass, containing all the seeds of nature. Hesiod 
says, " Chaos was first ;" then came into being " broad-breasted Earth, 
the gloomy Tartarus, and Love." The progeny of Chaos were Nox, 
Erebus, Day, and Ether, Ccelum, Heaven, and Terra, the Earth, were 
the parents of Saturn, the oldest of the gods, but he, having the Titans 
for brothers, obtained the kingdom only by an agreement to destroy 
all his offspring. This promise he fulfilled till Rhea, his wife, con- 
trived to hide Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, which becoming known to 
the Titans, they cast Saturn into prison. Jupiter, meanwhile, was 
reared in the isle of Crete, rocked by Adrastea in a golden cradle, fed 
with ambrosia brought by pigeons from the streams of Ocean, and 
nectar, which an eagle drew each day with his beak from a rock. 

10. When Jupiter had grown up to manhood he overcame the Titans 
and restored Saturn to his throne ; but he afterwards quarreled with 
his father and chased him into Italy, where the banished god spent his 
time in civilizing the rude inhabitants. He brought them into such 
a state of blessedness, that this period was ever afterwards called the 
Golden Age. He was represented in pictures as an old man, with a 
scythe in one hand, and a child, which he was about to devour, in the 
other. According to a more rational account, Saturn is but another 
name for time. Days, Months, and Years are the children of Time, 
which he continually devours and produces anew, even as Saturn is 
fabled to have destroyed his own offspring. 

11. After Saturn had been driven into exile, his three sons divided 
the universe among themselves. Jupiter became sovereign of the 
heavens and earth. Neptune obtained the empire of the sea, and 
Pluto received the scepter of the infernal regions. Jupiter, however, 
was soon disturbed in his dominions by the offspring of Titan, a race 
of terrible giants, who by piling Pelion upon Ossa attempted to ascend 



Questions.— 8. What is intimately connected with the poetical portion of Grecian 
history? 9. What did they style the beginning of all things? Who were the parents 
of Saturn ? Who were the Titans ? How many children had Saturn ? What is said of the 
youth of Jupiter? 10. What further account can you give of Jupiter? How was Saturn 
represented ? What more rational account do we have of Saturn ? 11. Who ruled over the 
three empires ? By whom was Jupiter disturbed ? In what way ? 



GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 91 

to heaven and pluck him from his throne. The gods, in great alarm, 
fled from Mt. Olympus to Egypt, where they sheltered themselves 
under the forms of various animals. 

12. Jupiter finally overcame his enemies, including the huge Typhon, 
whom he buried beneath Etna, where he heaves the lofty mountain 
with his groaning sides, and vomits flames to this day. Jupiter was 
always represented as sitting on a throne of ivory and gold, holding 
the thunderbolts in his right hand, and a scepter of cypress in the 
other, with an eagle standing by his side. He took in marriage his 
sister Juno, a beautiful, but ill-tempered goddess, who kept the "father 
of gods and king of men" a little in awe of her tongue, which did not 
always deal in the gentlest epithets. She was delineated as riding in a 
chariot drawn by peacocks, with a scepter in her hand, and a crown 
of roses and lilies upon her head. 

13. Nine of the principal deities were considered as the children of 
Jupiter. Apollo was the god of music, poetry, painting, and medicine. 
He was represented as a beautiful young man, with a bow in his hand 
and a quiver of arrows at his back. At the banquet of the gods on 
Olympus, Apollo played on his lyre while the Muses sang. When 
he resolved to choose the site of his first temple, he traversed Greece 
till he came to Crissa, a quiet, sequestered spot, sheltered by Mt. Par- 
nassus, where he slew the monstrous serpent Python, and set about 
erecting a temple ; whence the place was called Pytho. Mars, the 
god of war, was represented as driving furiously along in a chariot 
drawn by Fear and Terror, in the form of foaming steeds, with Discord 
running before him, in tattered garments, and Anger and Clamor fol- 
lowing close behind. 

14. Bacchus, the god of revels and revelers, is too well known, with 
his red eyes and bloated face, to need a description here. Mercury 
was the messenger of the gods, and of Jupiter especially. He was the 
god of speech, of eloquence ; the patron of merchants and of dishonest 
men, particularly thieves. He presided over highways and cross- 
ways, guided travelers through by-ways, and conducted the souls of 
the dead to the world below. In token of his office he was painted 
with wings upon his hat and upon his heels, with a rod called Cadu- 
ceus in his hand, which Apollo gave him in exchange for the Lyre. 
Square blocks of granite surmounted with his head, standing at the 
crossing of streets, were called statues of Herman. 

Questions.— 12. What success did Jupiter have? How was he represented? Who was 
bid wife? What was Juno's character ? How was she represented ? 13. H<>w many <\Lil- 
tlren had Jupiter ? Describe Apollo. Mars. 14. Describe Bacchus. Mercury. 



92 GREECE. 

15. Minerva was the goddess both of wisdom and of war, and was 
fabled to nave sprung, all armed and equipped, from the head of 
Jupiter. The spindle and the distaff were her invention, and the 
solemn owl her emblem. She superintended the building of the ship 
Argo, and taught Epeus how to frame the wooden horse. Athena, 
her Greek name, was given to Athens. Another name of hers was 
Pallas. The Palladium, her image, fell down from heaven into the 
city of Troy. When the Grecians besieged that place, they found it 
could never be taken while the Palladium remained in it. Ulysses 
and Diomedes crept into the city, through the sewers, and stole the 
precious protection, after which Troy was captured. 

16. Venus was the goddess of beauty and of love. The three 
graces danced around her, and the mischievous little Cupid played at 
her feet. She sprang from the froth of the sea, and was laid, like a 
pearl, in a shell instead of a cradle. The rose-colored shallop, with 
its precious freight, was wafted by Zephyrus to the island of Cyprus, 
where the gold-filleted Seasons received her, clothed her in immortal 
garments, adorned her with every ornament which could add to her 
beauty, and took her to the abode of the gods, every one of whom 
admired and loved her, and desired to espouse her. She finally fell to 
the lot of Vulcan. 

17. Vulcan, attended by his grisly one-eyed Cyclops, was repre- 
sented as a blacksmith, forging thunderbolts for Jupiter. It was said 
that the first woman was fashioned by his hammer, and that every god 
gave her some present, whence she was called Pandora; and that 
Jupiter, to be revenged upon Prometheus, who stole fire from .heaven 
to animate the man he had formed, sent Pandora to him with a sealed 
box. When the precious casket was opened, all sorts of evils and 
diseases flew out of it, and nothing but Hope was left at the bottom. 
Aurora, the goddess of the morning, was represented clothed in a 
saffron-colored robe, coming out of a golden palace, and throwing 
back a flowing vail, as she opened with rosy fingers the gates of day 
for the fiery steeds of Apollo. She was the mother of the winds, and 
wept the dew from her eyes in liquid pearls. The Muses were nine 
beautiful goddesses, who presided over musicians, orators, historians, 
poets, &c. 

18. Neptune, the god of the ocean, was drawn by dolphins, in 
his scallop-shell chariot, over the foaming waves. His hair was black 



Questions.— 15. Describe Minerva. 16. Venus. 17. Vulcan. Aurora. The Musea. 
IS Neptune 



THE TRIBUNAL OP THE DEAD. 93 

as the midnight storm, and his eyes as blue as the peaceful sea. An 
azure mantle floated from his shoulders ; in one hand he held his 
trident, and with the other clasped his wife, Amphitrite. Triton, his 
son and trumpeter, attended his father. 

Frowning, he seemed his crooked shell to sound, 
And at the blast the billows danced around. 

19. Beside the celestial and terrestrial deities, of which not a 
tithe have been enumerated, the infernal gods were often quoted. 
According to Grecian fables, the passage which led to the infernal 
regions was a wide and dark cave, opening upon a stagnant lake 
called Avernus. Four rivers were to be passed by the dead, the most 
celebrated of which was the Styx. Charon, the ferryman of hell, 
received the souls of the buried dead (those of the unburied being com- 
pelled to wander one hundred years about those gloomy shores), and 
rowed them over to the palace of Pluto. The gate of this palace was 
guarded by a three-headed dog, Cerberus, whose body was covered 
with snakes instead of hair. After bribing this ferocious keeper by 
the present of a cake, they entered to the presence of the sovereign of 
the infernal regions. 

20. This was Pluto, the brother of Jupiter, who sat upon an ebon 
throne, holding in his hand the key of "death and Hades." By his 
side sat Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, who became his wife in the 
following manner : When all the goddesses had refused to marry 
Pluto, he seated himself in his chariot of darkness, which rendered 
him invisible, and suddenly emerged from a cave in Sicily, near which 
some beautiful nymphs were gathering white daffodils. He seized 
Proserpine, and sank with her into the earth. Ceres, alarmed at the 
absence of her daughter, lighted a torch at the flames of Etna, and 
wandered up and down the earth in search of her. She found her at 
last in the infernal regions, the bride of Pluto. 

21. The Tribunal of the Dead. — All persons received their deaths 
impartially from the Fates. Then their condemnation impartially 
from the three Judges. And afterwards their punishment impartially 
from the three Furies. The Fates, three sisters, who ordered the 
Past, the Present, and the Future, were constantly employed in spin- 
ning the thread of life. Lachesis turned the wheel, Clotho drew out 
the thread, and Atropos cut it off with the fatal scissors. The three 

Questions.— 19. What is said of the infernal regions? 20. Who had charge of the inferna. 
regions? Who was his wife ? In what manner did he get his wife? 21. What is said of 
the tribunal of the dead ? 



94 GREECE. 

judges, Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Eacus, were the sons of Jupiter. 
The three tormenting Furies were monsters, with the faces of women. 
Grief, Terror, and Madness were their inseparable followers ; in om 
hand they held a lighted torch, while with the other they scourged 
the souls of the lost throughout all the gloomy caverns of hell. Beside 
the furies, ' these melancholy regions were peopled with Harpies, 
Sphinxes, G-orgons, u and chimeras dire," presenting every disgusting 
appearance, and every terrible form of punishment. 

22. Eltsian Fields. — There was a place in the province of Pluto 
called Elysium, where all the souls of the good, after being purged 
from their light offenses, were permitted to take up their abode 

" The few who're cleansed, to those abodes repair, 
And breathe in ample fields the soft Elysian air; 
From holy rites performed, they take their way, 
"Where long extended plains of pleasure lay. 
The fields are verdant, and with heaven may vie, 
With ether vested, and a purple sky : 
The blissful seats of happy souls below, 
Stars of their own, and their own sun they know.'" 

After years spent in these delightful retreats, the souls of the blessed 
were instructed to drink of the river Lethe, which washed away all 
remembrance of the past, and then they returned to earth again, to 
inhabit other bodies. 

23. The Greeks had also a class of demi-gods, who had human 
bodies, sacred minds, and celestial souls, and were sent into the world 
for the benefit of mankind. Among these were Hercules, who per- 
formed several mighty exploits; one of which was the rending asunder 
of Spain and Africa, thus permitting the strait of Gibraltar to flow 
between two rocks, called the pillars of Hercules; Jason, who headed 
the Argonautic expedition ; Esculapius, the god of medicine ; Or- 
pheus, Achilles, Ulysses, and many others, which it would be impos- 
sible to notice in the limits of this work. 

24. Beside all these gods, a species of imaginary beings filled every 
corner both of the earth and sea. Every mountain had its Oreads, 
the woods and vales were peopled with Dryads, the sea was furnished 
with Tritons and Nereids, and every fountain rejoiced in its guardian 
Naiad. To the Greeks, the thunder was the voice of Jupiter ; the 
soft breeze of summer, was the wing of Eolus; the echo of the forest 
was the pensive whisper of a goddess and the murmur of the streamlet 

Questions— 22. What is said of the Elysian fields? 23. Of the demi-gods? 24. Of 
imaginary beings? Of thnnder? Soft breeze? Echo of the forest? Murmur of the 
btreamlet? 



GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 95 

was the tone of a presiding deity. In short, whatever sound or sight 
charmed their fancy was ascribed to the agency of unseen, but beau- 
tiful and immortal beings. 

25. Effect of Gkecian Mythology. — It will readily be inferred, 
that a religion so interwoven with all that was lovely in nature, and 
all that was poetic in imagination, must have exercised a powerful 
influence upon the character of the people. The Greek honored his 
deity as his friend ; and to defend Ms temple, was a more sacred duty 
than to protect his own fireside. To paint the ideal beauty of Venus, 
to make the marble personate the lofty purity of Minerva, or the dread 
majesty of Jupiter, employed all the genius of the painter and the 
sculptor. To sing the combat of the gods with the giants; to charm 
the listeners at the Olympic games with the loves of Olympian Jove ; 
to recount the exploits of the heroes before the walls of Troy; to 
magnify the strength of Hercules, and the address of Theseus; 
awakened the imagination, and gave wings to the genius of the poet 
and historian ; hence it is that Greece stands proudly pre-eminent as 
the birth-place of the sciences, and the cradle of the fine arts. 

26. Till the time of Homer, the Greeks, like other savages, wor- 
shiped in the open air, in sacred groves, or in temples rudely con- 
structed for the purpose. The priesthood was limited to no parti- 
cular family or class; and oftentimes distinguished generals or magis- 
trates assisted in the most solemn rites. In the marriage ceremony, 
the bride was conducted in the evening from her father's house to her 
husband's, seated in a chariot, between the bridegroom and her most 
intimate friend. Torches were carried before them, and a nuptial 
song was chanted by the way. Before the door of the dwelling, the 
axletree of the carriage was broken, to signify that she was never to 
return to her father's house. 

27. At the death of friends, the Greeks abstained from all ban 
quets and entertainments; they tore or cut off their hair, they rolled 
in the dust, and covered their heads with ashes. Before the inter- 
ment, a piece of money was put into the mouth of the deceased, which 
was considered as Charon's fare for wafting the soul over the infernal 
river. The corpse was likewise furnished with a cake of honey and 
flour, designed to appease the fury of Cerberus, and procure the ghost 
a safe and easy entrance to the realms of Pluto. In the early ages, it 
was customary to lay the dead in the ground, but burning afterward 



Questions.— -25. What was the effect of Grecian Mythology? */5. Wftere did the Greek, 
conduct their worship? Describe their nuptial ceremonies. 2,. describe their funora 
ceremonies. W hat was esteemed a great disgrace ? 



90 GREECE. 

became the common practice. The pile was lighted by the nearest 
relative, and, while it was consuming, the friends stood by, pouring 
out libations, and calling upon the departed soul. Then followed 
feasts, at which all the guests appeared crowned, and employed the 
time in lauding the deceased, so far as was consistent with truth; for 
it was esteemed a great disgrace to lie upon such an occasion. 

28. The most powerful engines of Grecian polity were the mysteries 
and oracles. In every state of the Republic there were certain cere- 
monies of a secret religion, over which the solemn veil of mystery was 
thrown. The sacred rites of Ceres, and the oracular responses from 
the dismal cave of Trophonius, the venerable oak of Dodona, and the 
inspiring vapor of Delphi, exercised over the enthusiastic minds of the 
inhabitants a power which designing men seized upon to further their 
own ambitious views. 

29. Description of Delphi. — The oracle that gained the highest 
reputation was that of Delphi. On the southern side of Mount Par- 
nassus, not far from Crissa, the mountain crags formed a natural 
amphitheater, in the midst of which a deep cavern discharged from a 
narrow orifice, a vapor powerfully affecting the brain of those who 
came within its influence. This, we are told, was first brought into 
notice by a goatherd, whose goats, browsing upon the brink, were 
thrown into convulsions; upon which, the man, going to the spot and 
endeavoring to look into the chasm, became agitated like one frantic. 

30. The spot which produced such marvelous effects, became the 
object of universal curiosity ; people came from all quarters to inhale 
the inspiring fluid, and the incoherent words uttered in the intoxica- 
tion were considered prophecy. But the function of the prophet 
became not a little dangerous, for many through giddiness fell into the 
cave and were lost. An assembly of the neighboring inhabitants was 
therefore convened, a priestess was appointed by public authority ; a 
frame, resting upon three feet, called a tripod, was prepared, seated 
upon which the Pythoness inhaled the maddening vapor, and uttered 
incoherent sentences, which her attendants wrote down as the re- 
sponses of Apollo. A rude temple was built over the cavern, priests 
were elected, ceremonies were prescribed, and sacrifices were per- 
formed. Delphi, which was really near the center of Greece, was 
reported to be the center of the world. 

31. No enterprise of importance was undertaken, without first con- 

Questi07i8.—2$. What is said of the mysteries and oracles? 29, 30, 31. Describe Delphi. 
Where was it located? (Seo map No. 3.) What is it now ? Ans. A small village called 
Castri. How did Delphi become a "national bank?" 



SETTLEMENT OF GREECE 97 

suiting this oracle; to do which, it was necessary to propitiate the god 
by presents; and, as the priests had it always in their power to deny 
answers, to delay answers, or to give answers direct, dubious, and unin- 
telligible, the applicants soon came to understand the philosophy of mag- 
nificent donations. In addition to these incentives to munificence, the 
names of those who presented valuable gifts were registered, and the 
articles exhibited to visitors ; and thus interest and vanity combined to 
adorn the temple, till it became " one of the seven wonders of the 
world." These treasures were carefully guarded ; the wealthy de- 
posited their gold and jewels there for safe keeping, and, in this man- 
ner, Delphi finally became, also, the great National Bank of Greece. 

32. Gkeece Settled by the Sons of Ion or Javan. — Javan 
the son of Japheth was, according to historians, the progenitor 

of the Grecians. His four sons, Elisa, Tarsis, Chittim, and Dodanim, 
were supposed to have settled the country, and in them we recognize 
the heads of those tribes which afterward became so renowned for 
arts and arms. Elis, Elysian fields, and the river Ilissus derived their 
names from Elisa; Chittim was the father of the Macedonians; and 
Dodona was but a change of Dodanim. In amalgamations, revolutions, 
and migrations, the distinctive features of these tribes were finally lost, 
and they came to be known under the general appellation of "The 
Pelasgi," who were first noticed as a race of savages, living in caves, 
and clothing themselves in the skins of wild beasts. They founded 
Sicyon, b. o. 2090. 

33. A rude and massive style of building, of which many specimens 
were found in Southern Greece, was ascribed to the Pelasgi. Inachns, 
a Pelasgic leader, founded the city of Argos about the middle of the 
nineteenth century. At an uncertain, but very early date, an Asiatic 
people, named "Hellenes," migrated to Greece, and intermingled 
with, or expelled, the Pelasgi. In 1616 b. o., Corinth was founded by 
Sisyphus, In 1550 b. c, Cecrops, at the head of a colony from Egypt, 
founded Athens, and introduced the rudimenfts of civilization into 



Questions. — 32. From which of Noah's sons were the Grecians descended? Name four 
sons of Javan. What derivatives came from the name Elisa ? Who were " The Pelasgi ?" 
In what direction did Javan's sons travel from Babel ? Where was Sicyon ? (See map 
No. 2.) 33. What was the Cyelopic style of architecture ? Where was it found ? To whom 
was it ascribed? In what part of Greece was Argos? (See map No. 2.) By whom was it 
founded? When? Who were the Hellenes? By whom was Corinth founded ? In what 
year? When was Athens founded? By whom? From what place did he emigrate? How 
much older was Athens than Sparta? How did they become incorporated with the native 
Inhabi ants? Give the location of Athens and Sparta. (See map No. 2.) 
5 



98 GREECE. 

Greece. In 1516 b. o., Sparta was founded by Lolex, also an Egyptian. 
These colonists, however, united with the original inhabitants, and 
became so incorporated with them as to seem one race. 

34. The genealogy of the principal tribes may be understood from the 
following diagram : 



Hellen. 




J| Deucalion, king of Thessaly. 



A | I n I Amphictyon, founder of the Amphictyons. 



Dorus* J 3 J I 3 J Xutlier. 

Achaeus. f 4~T 



Eolus. 



Amphictyon. 



Ion. 



In very early times an assembly of deputies from the provinces had 
been in the habit of meeting to consult upon the common interests of 
the confederacy, in the temple of Ceres, near the pass of Thermopylae. 
Their constitution is not accurately known, but they seemed the 
guardians of religion, rather than the representatives of a general 
government. The code of laws by which their motions were governed 
was drawn up by Amphictyon, son of Deucalion. During this century 
the assembly began to meet semi-annually : at Delphi in the spring, 
and at Thermopylae in the autumn. They bound themselves by an 
oath to protect an Amphictyonic city, and to defend the territories of 
the god; invoking curses upon their land, and their children, defeat 
and distress in all enterprises and judicial controversies, in case they 
lailed to perform their oath. In 1455, Cadmus, with a company of 
7henicians, landed in Beotia and founded Cadmeia, the citadel of 
Thebes. He is said to have brought with him sixteen letters of the 
'Jreek alphabet. 

35. Pelops, a Phrygian prince, is said to have settled in Southern 
Greece, married the daughter of one of the native potentates, and 
became a man of so much consequence that the country was named 

* Mark the relations of the Dorians and Ionians. 



Questions. — 34. What council was instituted in this century ? When was Thebes foundedl 
By whom ? Trace the genealogy of the tribes. What were the early usages of the pro- 
vinces? Where did the assembly meet? What is known of their constitution? What 
city did Cadmus found in 1456? How many of the Greek letters did he introduce? 
35. Who was Pelops ? Where did he settle? In what year? Which way did he travel I 
llo v did Peloponnesus come by its name? Trace the line of genealogy. 



AC. 1184. J 



THE TROJAN WAR. 



99 



from him, Peloponnesus. Here follows the genealogy of his des r 
cendants : 

Dardanus. 



1 



Tantalus, king of Phrygia. 



| 2| Pelops. 




Paris. 



4 

6 fl 



Tros. 

Ilus. 

Laomedon. 

Priam, king of Troy 

Hector. 



Castor. 



1 Tynriarus, king of Sparta. 
*i— ' 

Pollux. ^ Helen. /V^aes,™. 



The genealogy of Helen, wife of Menelaus, and of Paris, prince ot 
Troy, may also be traced above. 

36. b.c. 1300. — The Argon autio Expedition. — According to the 
mythic legends so often quoted, Phryxus and Helle, two children of a 
Beotian king, to avoid the persecutions of their step-mother, escaped 
upon a winged ram, which had a fleece of gold. They intended to 
land in Colchis, where their uncle lived ; but, as they were passing the 
narrow strait that divides Asia from Europe, Helle fell into the sea, 
which was named from her, Hellespont.* Phryxus arrived in safety 
at Colchis. The ram died there ; and to recover his fleece, Jason, a 
relative of Phryxus, with fifty of the most renowned warriors of the 
age, among whom were Castor and Pollux, Hercules, Theseus and 
Laertes, undertook the Argonautic expedition. That a company sailed 
from the shores of Greece to the eastern borders of the Euxine, during 
this century, is no doubt a fact ; but what real purpose was veiled 
'inder the symbol of the golden fleece it is impossible to determine. 

37. b. c. 1184. — Teojan War. — Castor and Pollux having died in 
youth, and Clytemnestra being married to Agamemnon, king of Argos, 
Tyndarus, king of Sparta, looked for a successor in the husband of his 

* The Hellespont was the strait through which the tides of the Euxine flowed into the 
Egean. It was 60 miles long, and, in some places, 3 miles broad. 

Questions.— -36. Relate the mythic legend connected with the thirteenth century. What 
expedition is said to owe its origin to this fa' le ? 37, 33, 39. How did the Trojan war origi 
imiu ? Relate the story. 



100 GREECE. [b. c. 11SA 

Helen.* The beauty of this princess, together with the throne, drew 
numerous suitors from all parts of Greece, and Tyndarus began to fear 
that, in selecting a husband for his daughter, he should surround her 
with enemies in the persons of her rejected lovers; he therefore com- 
pelled them all to take an oath to protect her in possession of the ob- 
ject of her choice. Menelaus, brother of Agamemnon, was so fortu- 
nate as to win her regard, and to him Tyndarus consigned his daughter 
and his throne. 

38. Not long after, Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, hearing of the 
charms of Helen, made a voyage across the Egean to see her. He was 
kindly received, and hospitably entertained by Menelaus, who, during 
his stay, having occasion to visit Crete, left his wife to amuse his guest. 
Paris, who was the most beautiful man of his time, seized the oppor- 
tunity to persuade the fickle queen of the superior happiness to be 
enjoyed in his father's court. When Menelaus returned, he found his 
home deserted and pillaged of all its treasures ; the perfidious guest 
who carried away his wife having also loaded the ship with the 
precious things of Sparta. 

39. Burning with the desire of revenge, Menelaus summoned the 
former suitors of his treacherous queen to fulfill their vow, and assist 
him in burying the dishonor of Greece beneath the ashes of Troy. 
Agamemnon, the most powerful prince of the age, was appointed to 
head the expedition. Under this leader, all the chieftains, with their 
followers, from the end of Peloponnesus to the end of Thessaly, to- 
gether with Idomeneus from Crete, Ulysses from Ithaca, and other 
potentates from the islands, assembled in Beotia to embark in their 
enterprise of vengeance. The fleet, consisting of 1200 open vessels, 
each carrying from 50 to 120 men, had a prosperous voyage. The 
Greeks landed upon the coast, and soon compelled all the descendants 
of Dardanus to take refuge within the walls of Troy. 

40. How Troy Fell. — The siege became a blockade, and famine 
began to threaten the Trojans ; but the besiegers were themselves in 
little better condition. Supplies came slowly from the far-off shores 
of Greece, and finally they were obliged to disperse in different direc- 
tions to seek for sustenance. A band was sent over the Hellespont to 
cultivate the Chersonesus, and Achilles is said to have plundered 
twenty-three towns in marauding expeditions. The besieged also made 

* See page 99. 

Questions— S7, 38, 39. Who was the leader In the expedition against the Trojans? Who 
assisted Menelaus *.s allies? Where did the army assemble? What movement was then 
naadu . 40. Give a description of the siege that followed. 



n. c. 1184.] DORIAN INVASION. 101 

frequent sorties; Hector performed prodigies of valor, and Homer 
represents the gods themselves as mingling in the strife, and urging 
on the combatants. Thus the war was protracted during ten years. 

41. The Greeks at last had recourse to stratagem. Pretending to 
abandoi.^the siege, they formed a wooden horse of vast size, as a present 
for Minerva; and, making all preparations for returning home, em- 
barked in their ships and set sail, leaving a band of their bravest heroes' 
within'the body of the horse. The Trojans, overjoyed to be rid of their 
foes, tore down a part of the walls, and dragged the offering for Mi- 
nerva within their city. That night was spent in festivity through 
Troy. The guards were withdrawn, the weary soldiers threw aside 
their arms, and wine, amusement, and repose ruled the hour. Mean- 
time the Grecian fleet drew back to the shore ; the warriors disem- 
barked, and silently approached the devoted city ; the heroes in thp 
wooden horse sallied forth, opened the gates, and the Greeks entered 
The night, which was begun in feasting and carousal, ended in confla- 
gration and blood. The destruction of Troy took place b. o. 1184 
Independence and sovereignty never returned to the " land of Priam ;" 
it became a part of the kingdom of Lydia, and followed the fortunes 
of the great empires. 

42. Consequences of this Expedition. — But though the Greeks 
had extinguished the flames of their resentment in the best blood of 
Troy, they had little reason to glory in their revenge. Their fleets 
were dispersed, and their vessels were wrecked on dangerous coasts. 
Many of their chiefs wandered through long voyages, and settled in 
foreign parts; some became pirates, and made their homes among the 
islands of the Egean ; and of the few who were so fortunate us to 
reach the shores of Greece, but a very small number were able to 
wrest their thrones from the usurpers who had filled them during their 
absence. Clytemnestra, following the example of her sister, had 
bestowed her affections upon another, and Agamemnon, on his returr 
to Argos, was assassinated. 

43. Dorian Invasion. — The remainder of this century was dark 
ened by clouds of domestic strife. The descendants of Hercules, having 
been driven from Southern Greece by the Euystheus, had dwelt in 
the mountainous region of Doris, now, profiting by these commotions, 
they crossed the Corinthian Gulf, and seized upon their former inherit- 

Questions. — 41. By what stratagem was Troy at last taken? In what year did it fall? 
What did it become? Trace the Greeks from lieotia to Troy. (See map No. 2.) 42. What 
were the consequences of the expedition to the Greeks themselves? What became of 
Agamemnon? 43. Who was Hercules? Am. One of the demi-gods, whose children, return- 
iU. from Doris, overran and settled all Southern Greece. In what direction did they move? 



X02 GREECE. [b. c. 817. 

ance. In consequence of this revolution, Elis, Messenia, Laconia, and 
many other states of the Peloponnesus became Dorian ; the former 
inhabitants escaping to Asia Minor, or being reduced to a state of 
vassalage. 

44. b. o. 1068. — The Heraclidse, encouraged by their success in 
Southern Greece, advanced up through the isthmus and fell upon 
Attica. Codrus, at that time king, having been told that " either the 
state or the king must perish," disguised himself as a peasant, went 
into the camp of the enemy, insulted one of the soldiers, and was 
slain, thus nobly devoting himself for his country. The Heracleids 
were driven back into the Peloponnesus, and Medon, son of Codrus, 
was made Archon instead of King of Athens, b. o. 830. — Homer is 
accounted the most ancient writer, except Scripture historians. He 
was a blind old man, who lived in one of the Ionian colonies of Asia 
Minor. Hesiod is supposed to have been a shepherd, who fed his flocks 
by the side of Mt. Helicon. 

45. b. o. 817. — Olympic Games instituted by IpniTUS. Lycurgus's 
Laws. — Homer mentions certain games which were celebrated in his 
time, but it seems they were only occasional meetings ; and during the 
long troubles arising from the Dorian conquest, the customs and insti- 
tutions of the Peloponnesians were so altered and overthrown, that 
even the memory of the ancient games was nearly lost. In this season 
of turbulence, Iphitus ascended the throne of Elis. Active and enter- 
prising, but not by inclination a warrior, he was anxious to find a 
remedy for the disorderly situation of his country. For this purpose 
he sent a solemn embassy to Delphi, to inquire " How the anger of the 
gods, which threatened the total destruction of Peloponnesus, through 
endless hostilities among its people, might be averted." The answer 
was, "The Olympic festival must be restored ; for the neglect of that 
solemnity has brought on the Greeks the" indignation of the god 
Jupiter, to whom it was dedicated, and of the hero Hercules, by whom 
it was instituted ; and a cessation of arms must immediately be pro- 
claimed for all cities desirous of partaking in it." 

46. This reply of the god was promulgated throughout all Greece, 

Questions.— What places were settled by the expelled Pelopids? Ans. Eolia and 
Ionia? For what were the inhabitants afterward distinguished? Ans. For eleganco 
of taste and love of the arts and sciences. They were the teachers and examples of the 
other Greeks. Homer, Pythagoras, Parhasins, and Sappho, were natives of these colonies. 
Trace the Heracleids from Thessaly and Doris to Peloponnesus. 44. Where did the Hera- 
clida; next go? Relate the story of Codrus. Trace the Heraclidae from Laconia to Atticn. 
Who was Homer? What did he write? Who was Hesiod? What did he write? Ans. 
The stories of the gods. 45. By whom were the national games revived ? What led to tbeil 
revival ? Relate the story. 



b. c. 817. J OLYMPIC GAMES. 103 

and Iphitus caused the armistice to be published. With the approba- 
tion of the other Peloponnesians, it was ordained that a festival, open 
to the whole Greek nation, should % be held at the temple of Jupiter, in 
the spacious plain of Olympia ; that it should be repeated at the termi- 
nation of every fourth year ; that it should consist of solemn sacrifices 
and games: and that, whatever war might be in progress, a cessation 
of arms should take place before and continue long enough after the 
festival to allow all the Hellenic race to leave their homes, attend the 
games, and return again in peace. Thus Elis became the Holy Land 
of Greece, and a reputation of sacredness attached itself to the whole 
Eleian people. In the time of Iphitus the foot-race was the only 
game exhibited. 

47. Afterward, at different periods, wrestling, boxing, chariot- 
racing, and horse-racing were added ; and when sculpture, painting, 
poetry, and music, began to give refinement to pleasure, it was at the 
Olympic games that the artist exhibited specimens of his skill, and the 
poet gained his proudest laurels. A mart, or fair, was a natural con- 
sequence of a periodical assembly of multitudes in one place. lie, 
who had any thing to sell, could find purchasers in this vast concourse ; 
he, who had any thing splendid to exhibit in dress or equipage, could 
attract admiring eyes in a place where every thing that augmented 
the glory of the Greeks was applauded ; and thus it happened, that 
all the wealth, skill, and beauty of the nation passed in general review 
once in four years. This meeting supplied the want of a common 
capital ; matters of general interest were here promulgated, treaties 
were signed, and expeditions planned, which the strong national feel- 
ing, awakened by this display of strength, tended greatly to facilitate. 

48. Othek Games. — The advantages and gratifications of the Olym- 
pic games excited the Greeks to establish similar festivals in their own 
states. Three of these only, the Delphian, Isthmian, and Nemean. 
ever rose to any importance ; and they never equaled the Olympic 
in celebrity and splendor. The Delphian were celebrated at Delphi, 
in honor of Apollo ; the Isthmian upon the Corinthian Isthmus, in honor 
of Neptune, whose temple there commanded a view of the sea; and 
the Nemean in Argos, in honor of Juno. They were held at intervals 

Questions.— 46. Of what did the Olympic festival consist ? What is said of Elis ? Where 
was Olympia? (Map No. 2.) 47. Which were the only games during the time of Iphitus? 
What other games were afterward added ? What is said of the artist and the poet? What 
good resulted to the people in business transactions? 48. To what did the Olympic games 
excite the Greeks? What other festivals rose to importance? What can you state of the 
Delphian? Isthmian? Nemean ? Where was Delphi ? (See map No. 2.) Argos? Corin- 
thian Isthmus? (13, map No. 2.) 



104: 



GRE ECE. 



[b. c. 817. 



of four years, each taking its year between the Olympic meetings, so 
that every summer there was a festival common to all the Greek 
nation, with an armistice enabling all, who desired, to attend. 



Clytemnestra. 



A 



n 



Agamemnon. 



1 Orestes. 



m 



Argia. 



Eurysthenes. 



I 



CT"^ 



* 


H 

> 

8 

Cu 
go 
o 


2 


n 


1 


3 


3 


1 


1 


4 


4 


^T 


I 


5 


5 


l 


• 


6 


H 


1 


1 


7J 



Aristodemns, one of the 
Heracleids, b. o. 1100. 

Procle9. 



Archelaus. 



HTlI 1 



Lycnrgiis, the 
great law-giver. 
Charilaus. 



49. The race of Orestes terminating in a daughter, Argia, she was 
married to Aristodemns, one of the Heracleids, to whose share Laco- 
nia fell in the general division of the Peloponnesus. Aristodemus 
died soon after, and his twin sons, Eurysthenes and Procles, shared 
the kingdom jointly. The government thus formed a diarchy. For 
seven generations the crown descended in each line from father to son 
in unbroken succession. Each king naturally had his own partisans, 
and hence it is no matter of surprise that, after the lapse of two centu- 
ries, faction and anarchy should have obtained possession of the state. 

50. Order and peace had long been banished from Lacedemon when 
Lycurgus, by the death of his brother, was put in possession of the 
authority held by the line of Procles. He, however, resigned his newly- 

Questiona — 49. Who was Aristodemns ? How was his kingdom governed after his death ? 
How doe6 a dynasty differ from a dyarchy ? What troubles originated in the dyarchy form 
of government? 50. To what position did Lycurgus attain? 



B. c. 817.] THE SPARTAN LAWS. 105 

acquired dignity in favor of his infant nephew Charilaus, and, to fit 
himself for a law-giver, took what in those days was esteemed a long 
and perilous journey into Crete, Egypt, and Asia. In Crete he studied 
the laws of Minos, and formed an intimacy with a poet of that island, 
whom, when he left for Egypt, he persuaded to pass over into Sparta, 
and prepare the minds of the people, by popular poems, for those 
changes in government and manners which he intended to introduce. 

51. From Egypt he journeyed to Asia, where he found the poems 
of Homer, and observing in them many moral sentences and much 
political wisdom, he collected them in one body and transcribed them 
with his own hand. The disorders of the state, meantime, increased 
to such an extent, that the Lacedemonians sent frequent messengers 
to entreat their regent to return home. When all things were ready, 
he accepted the invitation, and, entering the city of Sparta amid the 
rejoicings of the people, immediately set himself to alter the whole 
frame of the constitution. 

52. b. c. 817. — Ltcurgus's Laws. — Having strengthened his author- 
ity by the sanction of the Delphic oracle, which declared that " The 
constitution he should establish would be the most excellent in the 
world," and having secured the aid of a numerous party among the 
leading men who took up arms to support him, he procured the enact- 
ment of a series of ordinances affecting the civil and military constitu- 
tion of the commonwealth, the distribution of property, the education 
of the citizens, and the rules of their daily intercourse and domestic 
life. A senate was chosen, consisting of experienced individuals, who 
gave to the government a just equilibrium : " The twenty-eight sena- 
tors adhering to the kings, whenever they saw the people too encroach- 
ing; and, on the other hand, supporting the people, when the kings 
attempted to make themselves absolute." 

53. The city was overstocked with indigent, indolent persons. Ly- 
curgus, to give them employment, and at the same time a motive for 
exertion, caused the whole territory of Laconiato be divided in thirty- 
nine thousand parts, which were portioned out to the inhabitants. 
After this, he attempted to divide the movables,* but here he found 
great difficulty; the people strongly objecting to the sacrifice of their 
goods. He therefore adopted another method, counter-working their 

* Furniture. 

Questions.— 50. Why did he take the long jouniey ? What did he do in Crete ? 51. What 
did he do in Asia? How were state affairs in Laconia during his absence? 52. How lid he 
strengthen his authority? What is said of the Senate? 53. What "Land Reform" did 
Lycurgus introduce? 
5* 



10G GREECE. [it. o. 817. 

avarice by a stratagem. He stopped the currency of gold and silver, 
and substituted iron money in its stead ; at the same time, fixing 
the rate of this new coin so low, that, to remove a sum equal to one 
hundred dollars, a cart and oxen would be required. This iron was 
good for nothing else, having been deprived of malleability, by being 
heated and plunged into vinegar. Neither would it pass among the 
other states, so that the Spartans had no means of purchasing any 
foreign or curious wares; nor did any merchant-ship unlade in their 
harbors. No sophists, wandering fortune-tellers, or dealers in gold 
and silver trinkets, were found in that country, there being no money 
to tempt them that way. Hence luxury, losing by degrees the means 
which supported it, died away of itself. 

54. Another regulation was the institution of public tables, where 
all the men were to eat in common of the same meat, and of such kinds 
of it as were appointed by law. They were not permitted to eat at 
home on any occasion, and they made it a point to observe and 
reproach any one, that seemed to lack appetite, as effeminate, and 
weary of the common diet. About fifteen persons formed the mess of 
one table, and each was required to bring, monthly, one bushel of 
meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of cheese, and a little money 
to buy flesh and fish ; but the food held in highest esteem was " black 
broth, 1 ' a kind of soup made of lentils. Children were introduced at 
these tables, that they might learn sobriety, and listen to discourses 
upon government. They were taught to joke without scurrility, to 
sustain raillery with equanimity, for, " It was reckoned worthy a Lace- 
demonian to bear a jest." When they first entered the hall, the oldest 
man present pointed to the door, saying, " Not a word spoken in this 
company goes out there." 

55. Discipline of the Young. — To render his institutions perma- 
nent, Lycurgus caused them to be inwoven with the whole fabric of 
society. From the earliest period of life, the discipline of youth was 
stern and severe. Feeble and defective children were thrown into a 
cave, and left to perish ; such as, upon a public examination, were 
deemed sound and healthy, were adopted as children of the state, and 
committed to their mothers for the period of infancy. At the age of 
seven, they were taken from their parents and educated at public 
expense. They were enrolled in companies, and kept under the same 
order and discipline as a military band. 

Question.?.— 53. What currency alteration? What was the effect ? 54. What regulation 
whs introduced in relation to public tables? "The Mess n of one table ? Children at the 
tables • 55, 50. What was the discipline of the youth? What is said of theft? 



b. c. 817.J THE SPARTAN LAWS. 107 

56. The youth who showed most courage was made captain ; and 
frequent skirmishes took place between rival parties, which the old 
men encouraged by commendations. As they advanced in age, their 
hair was cut very close, they were forced to go bare-foot, and play, for 
the most part, quite naked. They slept on beds of reeds, gathered 
with their own hands, and were allowed but a spare diet, that their 
ingenuity might be cultivated to supply their wants. One of the 
ablest men in the city was appointed inspector of the youth ; he gave 
the command of each company to a young man who had been two 
years out of the class of boys, and was therefore called an Iren. This 
Iren, when twenty years old, gave orders to his inferiors, with all the 
dignity of a colonel. He called upon them to serve him at his house; 
some he sent to get wood, others to gather herbs, or to steal any eat- 
able from the common tables. Ingenuity in these little thefts was 
highly honored, but detection insured disgrace. 

57. A boy, having stolen a fox, and hidden it under his garment, 
suffered the creature to tear out his vitals, rather than encounter the 
sneers of his companions. The Iren, reposing himself after supper, 
used to order one of the boys to sing a song ; to another, he put some 
question, such as "Who is the best man in the city?" If the respond- 
ent hesitated in his answer, he was considered a boy of slow parts, and 
he who gave a wrong answer had his thumb bitten by the Iren. The 
magistrates often attended these little trials, and if the Iren were 
guilty of too much severity or remissness, he himself suffered punish- 
ment after the boys were gone. 

58. Short and pithy sentences became the style of Laconia. Lycur- 
gus himself adopted and encouraged this manner of discourse. The 
Spartans cultivated poetry and music, as every thing else, in sub- 
serviency to a martial spirit. There were three choirs in their 
festivals. The old men began, 

" Once in battle bold we shone;" 

the young men responded, 

" Try us ; our vigor is not gone ;" 

and the boys concluded, 

" The palm remains for us alone." 

In war the severity of their discipline was relaxed ; the men were per- 
mitted to comb their hair gracefully, and to study elegance in their 

Questions.— 57. Relate the story of the boy and fox. What farther discipline were the 
youth subjected to? 58. What style of expression did the people adopt? What arts did 
they cultivate? Where was the severity of their discipline relaxed ? 



108 GREECE. [B. c. 77G. 

arms and apparel; but at home, the city was like one great camp, 
where all had their stated allowance, and knew their public charge, 
"Each man concluding that he was born, not for himself, but for hia 
country." 

59. They were expressly forbidden to exercise any mechanic art or 
agricultural employment. The Helots, inhabitants of a small sea-port 
town in Laconia, had been reduced to a state of servitude some years 
before, and upon them fell the burden of all the labor. These slaves 
were treated with the greatest inhumanity. They wore dog-skin 
bonnets, and sheep- skin vests; they were forbidden to learn any 
liberal art, and once a day they received a certain number of stripes, 
lest they should forget their condition. Sometimes they were intoxi- 
cated and exposed in the public halls, to the ridicule of the children, 
and when there was danger of their becoming too numerous, the 
Spartan youth were instructed to sally out in the night and kill all the 
Helots they met. 

60. End of Lycurgus. — The last act of Lycurgus was to sacrifice 
himself for the perpetuity of his work. Having assembled all the 
Spartans, he told them that it was necessary to consult the oracle 
upon an important subject; then, taking an oath of the kings, and 
senators, and people, to obey his laws till his return, he bade farewell 
to his beloved Sparta, and bent his steps toward the Delphi. When 
the last seal had been set to his institutions by the oracle, which fore- 
told that Sparta should flourish as long as she adhered to them, he 
transmitted the prediction to his fellow-citizens, and, that they might 
never be freed from their oath, determined to die in a foreign land. 
The place and manner of his death are veiled in obscurity. Both 
Delphi and Elis claimed his tomb. Sparta, faithful to her oath, ad- 
hered to his institutions five centuries, and each year honored the law- 
giver as a god. with solemn sacrifices. 

61. The First Olympiad. — In the year 776, b. a, Coroebus, having 
won the prize in the Olympic games, had his name inscribed in the 
gymnasium, and this period began the first Olympiad. The prizes 
in these games were at first of some intrinsic value, but from the 
7th Olympiad, or twenty-eight years after the victory of Corcebus, 
the only prize given was a garland of wild olive, cut from a tree in the 

Questions. — 58. What was the conclusion of each man ? 59. What prohibition was imposed 
upon the people? Who were the Helots? What did they become? How were they 
treated? 60. What was the last act of Lycurgus? Relate the circumstances attending it 
What was the tendency of the laws Lycurgus established? Trace him through his travels 
CI. In what year besan the first Olympiad? After the victory of Coroebus, what became 
tho prize in the games? How were the victors honored ? 



b. C. 743. J MESSENIAN WAR. 109 

sacred grove at Olympia, which was said to have been brought by 
Hercules from the land of the Hyperboreans. Palm leaves were at 
the same time placed in the hands of the victors, and their names 
were proclaimed by a herald. A victory at Olympia, being the highest 
honor a Greek could obtain, conferred such glory on the republic 
to which he belonged, that he was permitted to eater his native city 
in triumph through a breach made in the walls for his reception ; 
banquets were given to him by his friends, and olten an annuity was 
settled upon him by the State. 

62. In this century the office of Ephori was instituted at Sparta. 
This court consisted of five members only, chosen annually from 
among the people. "They were empowered to fine whom they 
pleased, and exact immediate payment of the fine." They could sus- 
pend the functions of any other magistrates, and arrest and bring to 
trial even the kings. The archonship of Athens, which had hitherto 
been hereditary in the family of Codrus, was in this century made 
decennial. 

63. b. o. 743. — First Messexian War. — The first trial the Lacede 
monians had occasion to make of their military discipline was in a 
war with the Messenians, their western neighbors. A rich Messenian 
put out some cattle under the care of herdsmen (his own slaves) to 
pasture, by agreement, on the lands of a Lacedemonian. The Lacede- 
monian sold both cattle and herdsmen, pocketed the reward of his 
iniquity, and pretended to the owner that they had been carried off by 
pirates. One of the slaves, however, escaped from his purchaser, 
returned to his master, and related the whole affair. The injured 
Messenian sent his son to demand the money of the perfidious Lacede- 
monian, who added to his enormities by murdering the youth. The 
father, full of grief and indignation, went himself to Sparta and laid 
his complaint before the kings and people. Finding no disposition in 
them to grant him redress, he returned to his own country, and avenged 
himself by murdering all the Lacedemonians he could meet. These 
outrages resulted in a war, disastrous to Lacedemon, and almost fatal 
to Messenia. 

64. Without any of those formal declarations of war which the law 
of nations even then required, the Lacedemonians prepared secretly for 
hostilities, and so extreme was their enmity that an oath was taken, 
" That no length of time should weary them, and no misfortune deter 

Questions. — I.i what manner was victory estimated? How long was one Olympiad ? 
Ans. Four years. 62. What office in Sparta was instituted during this century? What 
change was made in the archonship of Athens? 68. What caused the first Messenian war? 



HO GREECE. |B. c. 685. 

them, but they would prosecute the war, and on no account return to 
their families till they had subdued Messenia." For nineteen long 
years the conflict raged with doubtful success; if Messenia was de- 
populated, Sparta was in no better situation, for all the men capable 
of bearing arms were exiles by their oath, and Lacedemon was 
inhabited only by women. But Spartan discipline and Spartan per- 
severance at length prevailed. Ithome, the last stronghold of the 
wretched Messenians, was beseiged and taken, the garrison fled by sea, 
the miserable multitude scattered in various directions about the 
country, and the Lacedemonians reduced them to a state of servitude 
little better than that of the Helots, b. c. 724. 

65. b. c. (J 8 5, — Second Messenian Wab. — During forty years, 
Messenia remained in quiet subjection. Another race were by this 
time grown up, ignorant of the comparative strength of themselves 
and their conquerors, and filled with that irresistible spirit of liberty 
which animated every Greci.m breast. Aristomenes, a noble youth, 
who tra.ad his origin to Hercules through a long line of kings, was 
the instigator and leader of the revolt. Supported by allies from 
Argos and Arcadia, he attacked a body of Lacedemonians, and showed 
such skill and courage that the Messenians saluted him king on the 
field of battle, a name which he, however, declined in favor of that of 
general. To practice upon the superstitious fears of the enemy, he 
entered Sparta, which had neither walls nor watch, and hung against 
the Brazen House (the temple of Minerva) a shield, with an inscription 
declaring that Aristomenes, from the spoils of Sparta, made that offer- 
ing to the goddess. Alarmed lest their enemy should win the favor 
of their protecting deity, the Spartans sent to consult the oracle, and 
were directed to take an Athenian adviser. 

66. The Spartans were little pleased with this response, the jealousy 
between the Dorians and Ionians being already rife, and the Athenians 
were little disposed to aid in the subjugation of the brave Messenians; 
but the embassy was sent for the required leader, and the Athenians, 
fearing to offend the god, complied in such a manner as they thought 
would render compliance useless. They sent to the Spartans Tyrtaeus, 
a lame schoolmaster and poet, who, notwithstanding his disabilities, 
proved more serviceable than they designed. By his poetry he roused 
the drooping spirits of the Spartans, and persuaded them to enlist a 

Questions. — 64. How long did i" continue? What was the result? 65. Who was Aris- 
tomenes ? What is said of him ? What allies did he have ? Could they have reached Mes- 
senia without going through Laconia? C6. Who was Tyrtaeus? On what mission was he 
Bent? What success did lie meet with. 



b. c. 68:.] ARISTOMENES IN THE CAVER is. m 

band of Helots among their soldiers. Though Aristomenes continually 
harassed them with incursions, yet it was not till the third year of the 
war that the contending parties. came to any decisive engagement. 

67. In the great battle of the Trenches, the Messenians were be- 
trayed by the king of the Arcadians, and Aristomenes, escaping with 
a scanty remnant of his forces, was obliged to give up the defense of 
his country and concentrate his remaining strength at Ira, a strong- 
hold near the sea. Making this place his headquarters, he sallied out 
upon the enemy and carried off prey or prisoners, till at last, falling in 
with a body of Lacedemonians under both their kings, he was taken 
with about fifty of his band. 

68. How Aristomenes Escaped. — They were tried as rebels, and 
sentenced to be thrown into a deep and dark cave, used for the punish- 
ment of the worst criminals. Aristomenes was saved as if by a miracle. 
His shield, which he had been allowed to retain in compliment to his 
valor, striking against the sides of the cave, broke the violence of his 
fall, so that he tumbled alive upon the dead bodies of his companions. 
After the first feeling of gratitude for deliverance had subsided, his 
heart sank at the prospect of a lingering death in this horrid charnel, 
peopled with the skeletons and putrid carcasses of former criminals. 
He retreated to the farthest corner, and, covering his head with his 
cloak, laid down to wait for death. On the third day of this dreadful 
imprisonment he was startled by a rustling noise. Rising and un- 
covering his eyes, he perceived by the glimmering light a fox devour- 
ing the carcasses. 

69. It immediately occurred to him that this animal must have 
entered the cavern by another way than that by which he had himself 
descended. Acting upon this- suggestion, he seized the fox with one 
hand, while with his cloak in the other he prevented its biting him, 
and in this way followed it through a narrow bury till the passage 
became too strait for his body. But here a peep of daylight renewed 
his courage, and setting vigorously to work with his hands, he soon 
made an opening large enough to creep through, and thus found him- 
self once more at liberty. His friends at Ira received him as one risen 
from the dead. The Spartans affected to disbelieve the story of his 
reappearance, but Aristomenes soon proved to them that he had lost 
none of his valor by his sojourn in the cavern. 

70. Fate of Iea and the Messenians. — Through his untiring in- 
genuity and perseverance, the siege of Ira was protracted during eleven 

Question*.— 67. Give an account of the first battle. What misfortune befell Aristomenes? 
C8, (>9. liolate the circumstances of his escape. 70, 71. How long did the siege of Ira last? 



112 GREECE. [b. c. 668 

years, and at last was taken only by treason. A Spartan deserter, 
learning that an outpost of Ira had been abandoned one stormy night, 
re-deserted to his countrymen with the intelligence. Guided by the 
double-dyed traitor, the Lacedemonians silently carried ladders to the 
defenseless point and mounted unresisted. The barking of dogs 
awakened Aristomenes. Hastily summoning his men, he rushed to 
the rescue, and all that night the clash of arms and the shout of com- 
batants mingled with the howling of the storm ; the women assisting 
bj r throwing tiles from the house-tops, or bearing arms in the fight. 

71. But the numbers of the Lacedemonians enabled them constantly 
to bring up fresh troops, while every Messenian was obliged to stand 
at his post, without rest or refreshment, under the peltings of the 
pitiless storm. Cold, wet, sleepless, jaded, and hungry, they kept up 
the struggle for three nights and two days, and then resolved upon the 
last effort of despair. The men were drawn up in a hollow square, 
with the women and children in the center, and a passage demanded, 
sword in hand. The Spartans gave way on every side, and this 
miserable remnant of a heroic people advanced unharmed. The Ar- 
cadians came to meet them on the frontiers of their country, bringing 
food and clothing, and saluting them with words of kindness and sym- 
pathy. The aged and infirm Messenians remained in Arcadia, but 
the young and vigorous determined to seek independence in a foreign 
land. 

72. While they yet deliberated on the choice of a country, a mes- 
senger arrived from Rhegium, sent by the king of that place, to offer 
the exiles an asylum in his dominions. This refuge was joyfully 
accepted, but scarcely were they comfortably located with their 
hospitable entertainers, when they were harassed by the piratical 
incursions of the Zancleans across the strait. Here seemed an oppor- 
tunity to reward their benefactors and provide a home for themselves; 
therefore, assisted by the Rhegians, they besieged Zancle, both by sea 
and land, conquered the inhabitants, united with them, and founded 
the city of Messina, which remains to this day a witness of the valor 
of the Messenians. 

73. What became of Aristomenes. — Aristomenes sent his son 
with the colony to Zancle, but for himself, he said, he would never 

Questions.— How was Ira finally taken? What was the fate of the Messenians? 72. 
Where did the Messenians take refuge ? Where did they finally settle ? What is said oi 
the city of Messina? Where is that city? (See map No. 4.) What is its present popu- 
lation? Ans. About 100,000 inhabitants. Trace the Messenian exiles from Ira to Arcadia, 
thence to Rhegium, and thence to Sicily. 73. What account can you give of the son of 
Aristomenes? What exertions did Aristomenes make ? 



B. c. 612.] THE ALCM^EONIDiE. 113 

cease to war with Lacedemon. He vainly sought the means of farther 
hostilities. He passed over into Asia, hoping to get assistance there ; 
and finally spent some years with a Pwhodian king, who, heing told 
to marry the daughter of the most illustrious Greek, unhesitatingly 
chose the child of Aristomenes. He lived universally respected by 
the most powerful princes of his time, and died at Sardis, deeply 
lamented by all who knew him. His actions dwelt in the memories 
of his countrymen, and cheered their wanderings and sufferings ; and 
in their legendary songs, his character was represented as combining 
all the elements of goodness and greatness, in a degree almost un- 
paralleled among Grecian heroes. 

74. From the death of Codrus, 1068, to the year b. o. 624, nothing 
of particular interest occurred in the history of Athens. The Archon- 
ship descended from father to son, in the family of Medon, son of 
Codrus, till the thirteenth generation, when, by a change in the con- 
stitution, upon the death of Alcmaaon, the office was laid open to the 
ambition of all the nobles, and the Archons were elected once in ten 
years. The children of Alcmceon, as descended from a king, and from 
that Alcmceon who first settled in Attica, looked upon themselves as 
the aristocracy, and assumed airs little pleasing to the other citizens. 
There was then in Athens a young man named Oylon, who had dis- 
tinguished himself at the Olympic games, and married a daughter of 
the king of Megara. Fully persuaded that he was equal, if not supe- 
rior to the proud Alcmseonids, he determined to set the matter beyond 
all doubt by making himself master of the republic. 

75. With a band of troops which he obtained from his father- 
in-law, he seized the citadel of Athens. Megacles, the head of the 
Alcmaaonid family, being at that time Archon, summoned the citizens 
to arms, and, surrounding the Acropolis, cut off every resource from 
the young aspirant and his followers. Oylon saved himself by a dis- 
graceful flight; his deserted adherents fled for protection to the altars. 
Not caring to stain these sacred places with their blood, Megacles 
lured them forth by a promise of pardon ; but no sooner were they in 
his power, than he caused them all to be put to death as traitors ! 
The sacrilege, thus wantonly committed under color of the law, alien- 
ated the minds of the Athenians from the Alcmseonidien, and proved 
a fruitful source of trouble in later times. Megacles and his adherents 



Questions. — What became ofAristomer.es? Trace the course of Aristomenes? 74 In 
what year does Athehian history resume its interest? What is said of the Archonship ? Of 
the children of Alcmacon ? Who was Cylon? Upon what did he determine ? 75. Give an 
account of the attempt made by him. Who was Megacles ? What can you state of him ? 



Hi GREECE. [b. c. 624. 

were banished, but still tranquillity was not restored. The existing 
laws were insufficient to quell the disorders which daily arose; and, 
finally, the Athenians iippointed Draco, an old man of acknowledged 
probity, to fill the office of legislator. 

76. Draco's Laws. — Draco brought forward, his code of laws, b. o. 
624. They were peculiar only for the penalties annexed to them. The 
slightest theft was punished capitally, as well as the most atrocious 
murder ; and one remarked of them that "they were written with 
blood, and not with ink." His own words, "small crimes deserve 
death, and I know of no heavier punishment for greater," serve to 
illustrate the severity of his disposition. The laws, of course, fell 
into disuse ; the penalties were too severe to be executed, and the 
law-giver himself was obliged by the anarchy that ensued to retire 
to Egina, where he was suffocated by the number of cloaks and gar- 
ments thrown upon him in the theater — a method which the inhabit- 
ants took to express their esteem for him. 

77. b. o. 000. — Recapture of Salamis. — The island of Salamis, 
wearied of the weak and uncertain government of Athens, threw off 
its allegiance, and set up for independence. Many unsuccessful 
attempts were made to reduce it to its former state of dependency ; 
and, finally, the people met in general assembly, and decreed capital 
punishment to any private or magistrate who should propose to lead 
them again to the conquest of Salamis. The nobles, unable to ad- 
minister the government, and the people, incapable of acting in any 
public capacity, were equally dissatisfied with the posture of affairs, 
but none dared to propose any change. 

78. In these circumstances, came forth one of the greatest charac- 
ters Greece ever produced. Solon, a young poet, descended from 
Codrus, though a native of Salamis, had resided for some time at 
Athens. Perceiving that the people regretted their foolish resolution, 
he gave out that he was subject to occasional fits of insanity, and shut 
himself up in his house, while he composed a poem on the loss of the 
lovely island. Having every thing prepared, one day, during an as- 
sembly of the people, he ran into the market place, like one frantic, 
mounted the herald's stone, and recited his poem to the crowd. Some 
of his friends stood ready to raise the shout of admiration ; the people 
caught the phrensy, the odious law was repealed by acclamation, a 

Questions.— Who was Draco? 76. When did he offer his code of laws? What can you 
state of the laws? What became of Draco? Trace Draco to Egina. 77. Where was the 
island of Salamis? (See map No. 2.) What political change took place? W T hat attempts 
were made ? What decree was made? What, tken, was the condition of affairs at Athens V 
78. Who was Solon ? In what manner did he distinguish himself? 



b. c. 504.] THE NEW CONSTITUTION. 115 

new expedition was ordered, and Solon was appointed to command 
the troops. Under his guidance, the Athenians were successful, and 
Salamis again acknowledged the authority of the parent state. In the 
general joy, the exiles were restored ; Megacles returned, and the 
Alcmaeonids again ruled the city. 

79. Factions. — But the discords of Athens, having their origin in a 
defective constitution, were not removed. The mountaineers and 
common people sighed for a complete democracy; the rich landed- 
proprietors aimed to establish an exclusive oligarchy ; and the mercan- 
tile men were anxious to see the different orders harmonized in a 
mixed government : hence, Highlanders, Lowlanders, and Coastmen, 
became the distinguishing names of the factions which long divided 
the Attic people. While matters were growing worse and worse, and 
many were looking to a despotism for relief, the superior abilities of 
Solon drew the attention of all parties. Though one of the nobles, he 
had never oppressed the poor; though the favorite of the people, he 
had never excited their clamors against the rich : his wisdom had 
been proved, his integrity was above question ; and he was accord- 
ingly, with unanimous consent, elected Archon, with peculiar powers 
for reforming the laws and constitution. 

80. b. o. 594. — Solon's Laws. — In the inquiry, what the Athenian 
constitution was, it will be necessary to take a view of the Component 
Members of the Athenian State. Athens was inhabited by three dis 
tinct classes : I. A citizen, born of free Athenian parents, or admitted 
to the freedom of the state, was one of the people, and eligible to any 
office. II. Strangers, who came to settle at Athens, for the sake of 
commerce, or any other reason, had no share in the government, no 
votes in the assembly of the people, and could not be admitted to any 
office. III. Servants, were those taken in war, and bought and sold as 
parts of their master's estate. They were treated with great kindness, 
and could ransom themselves, even without their master's consent, 
when they had laid up sufficient money for the purpose. 

81. It was the object of Solon's laws to equalize, as much as possi- 
ble, the privileges and authority of the citizens. He repealed all the 
laws of Draco, except those against murder. But the distinguishing 
feature of the new constitution was the substitution of property for 
birth, as a title to the honors and offices of the state. Solon divided 



Questions. — 79. How many factions were there? Name thein. Why was Solon elected 
Archon? 80. How many classes were there in Athens? What privilege belonged to the 
free burn citizen? What is said of strangers? Of servants? 81. What was the object of 
trolon s laws? What was the distinguishing feature of the new constitution ? 



HO GREECE. [b. c. 594. 

the people into four ranks; the first consisted of those whose in- 
come amounted to five hundred measures yearly ; the second, of those 
whose revenues came up to three hundred, who, being able to keep a 
war-horse, were called knights; the tried were called by a name 
and filled a rank similar to that of yeomen ; and the fourtr consisted 
of hired laborers in husbandry. Out of the first class only, nine 
Archons were chosen yearly. The first, called the Archon, took care 
of legacies and wills provided for orphans, and punished drunkenness ; 
the second had the charge of religious ceremonies, and enjoyed the 
title of king ; the third had the care of strangers; and to each of the 
others separate offices were assigned. 

82. Courts, Councils, and Assembly. — Every Archon on laying 
down his office became a member of the Couet of Areopagus. This 
court consisted entirely of ex-archons, who held their offices for life, 
unless they were expelled for immoral conduct. It was the first court 
that ever decided upon life and death ; it was the only court from 
which there was no appeal to the people. The members held their 
meetings on "Mars-hill," a small eminence at a little distance from the 
Acropolis. They sat in the open air in the night, around an altar 
dedicated to Minerva, near which were rude seats of stone for the de- 
fendant and his accuser. No eloquent pleadings nor moving represen- 
tations were allowed before this court, lest the minds of the judges 
should be warped by them. The Areopagites took cognizance of 
murders, impiety, immoral behavior, and particularly of idleness, 
which they deemed the cause of all vice. They guarded the laws and 
managed the public treasury ; they had the superintendence of youth, 
and provided that all should be educated according to their rank and 
fortune. 

83. The institution of the council of Four Hundred was uniformly 
ascribed to Solon; but the judicial power which he relied upon most 
for the correcting of all abuses was a body of 6000 citizens, called the 
General Assembly, chosen by lot yearly to form a kind of supreme court. 
There were also ten courts of judicature in Athens, and, to save the 
inhabitants of Attica the trouble of coming to the city for justice, 
itinerant judges, called the Forty, were appointed to go through the 
boroughs and decide cases of inferior consequence. Solon ordered that 
all those who took no part in public affairs should be punished; for, 



Questions. — St. How did Solon divide the people ? 82. How was the court of Areopagus 
formed? What is said of this court in particular? What else is said of the court? S3. 
What is said of the Council of Four Hundred ? Of the General Assembly ? Of the courts of 
judicature? Of itinerant judges! 



B. c. GOO.] TEE NEW CONSTITUTION. H7 

said he, " That is (in my opinion) the most perfect government where 
an injury to any one is the concern of alV 

84. As many of the citizens had sold themselves for debt, the law- 
giver caused a general cancellation to take place, and lessened the rate 
of interest, that the poor might be able to recover from the oppression 
under which they had so long groaned. No son was compelled tc 
support his father in old age, unless the father had taken care to bring 
him up to some trade or profession. These enactments, in which 
Solon was supported by the nobles as well as by the people, were in- 
scribed upon blocks of wood made to turn upon an axis. They were 
kept at first in the Acropolis, but afterward in the Prytaneum or 
place of the General Assembly. They formed the basis of the Roman 
Twelve Tables, and thence became incorporated in the institutions of 
Alfred the Great; so that we may trace our trial by jury and repre- 
sentative government to the laws of Solon. 

85. First Sacred War. — The territory of Crissa, situated upon a 
gulf of the same name, contained three cities whose harbors were 
crowded with vessels from every quarter, bringing pilgrims to the 
neighboring temple of Delphi. The commorce thus created filled the 
coffers of the Crisseans with the gold of Asia, Africa, and the islands 
of the Egean. Not content with these honest gains, the rapacious in- 
habitants levied a tax upon every foreigner, and a few individuals, 
more impious still, filled up the measure of their iniquities by forcing 
the gates of the temple and plundering its treasures. This sacrilegious 
act affecting, as it did, the pecuniary interests of all Greece, could not 
be forgiven. Solon represented to the Amphictyonic council the 
necessity of punishing the offense with the greatest rigor. A messenger 
was accordingly sent to Crissa, to require the surrender of the crimi- 
nals. The Crisseans made common cause with their guilty fellow- 
citizens, and an insulting answer was returned to the venerable guar- 
dians of the holy shrine. 

86. War was in consequence declared against the sacrilegious 
rebels, and Solon was appointed to command the armies which 
assembled from all parts of Greece, to avenge the injury done to the 
god. The Amphictyonic forces besieged the city of Crissa nine years 

. Questions. — S4. What general bankrupt law went into effect? What view had Solon of 
indolence ? How were filial duties regulated ? Upon what were the laws inscribed? W r hat 
did they eventually become? What regulations in our own government can be traced to 
the laws of Solon ? 85. In what division was Crissa? Ans. Phocis. What is said of the 
three cities? Of the rapacity of the inhabitants? Give the primary causes of the war that 
followed. 86. What appointment did Solon receive ? What city was then besieged ? How 
long did the siege continue ? Where was the Gulf of Crissa ? (Map No. 2.) 



;Qg GREECE. [b. o. 591. 

without gaining any decisive advantage. The length of the war 
dampened their zeal, and a pestilence which broke out in the camp 
threatened it with a final extinction. Deputies, sent to the oracle for 
counsel, returned with the singular answer, " Send to Cos for the 
fawn of gold" What this was, or how it could help them, was more 
than they could tell ; but in those days it was deemed proper to obey 
the commands of the gods, even though they seemed hard to be under- 
stood ; and messengers were dispatched upon the mysterious errand. 

87. When the envoys made known their business in the Coan 
assembly, a dead silence ensued ; for the magistrates there knew no 
more of the article in question than did the Amphictyons themselves. 
After an embarrassing pause, an old man arose and said — "My name 
is Nebros, which in our language signifies fawn, and my son's name is 
Chrysos, which signifies gold. Chrysos, my son, therefore, must be 
the 'fawn of gold ' intended by the gods, and he shall go with you." 
Strengthened and animated by the success of their mission, the am- 
bassadors returned, and great was the joy in the Amphictyonic camp, 
when Chrysos, by means of his medical knowledge, restored the sick 
to health, and raised the drooping spirits of the soldiers. By accident, 
he also discovered a pipe which conducted water into the city, and 
found means to poison the fountain. The garrison was thus conquered 
by an unseen foe, and Crissa fell into the hands of the Amphictyons. 

88. But Cirrha and Anti-Cirrha, two powerful cities, still remained, 
and threatened to stand a siege as long as had already detained the 
forces of Apollo. Again the oracle was consulted, and again the re- 
sponse plunged them all into perplexity. " The Amphictyons," said the 
Pythia, " will never be successful till the waves of the sea wash the 
sacred precincts of Delphi." While all the deputies were speculating 
on the possibility of getting the sea over the Parnassian mountains, 
Solon relieved their embarrassment by suggesting that, as they could 
not bring the sea to the sacred hounds, they might take "the converse 
of the proposition " and bring the sacred bounds to the sea. 

89. This plan struck the Amphictyons favorably. With various 
imposing rites and ceremonies, they consecrated all the territory of 
Crissa to Apollo, and called on him to aid in the punishment of ita 
sacrilegious possessors. Superstitious hopes and fears now aided in 
the contest. The Amphictyons were filled with courage, the Cir- 

Que^tions.—SQ. Why were deputies sent to Delphi? What answer did they get? 87 
What further can you state of ikefaw?i of gold f What did Chrysos accomplish ? 88. Wlial 
two cities still held out? What course was adopted? What was the response? What 
did Solon suggest? 89. What effect did it produce upon the enemy? To what purpose 
were the spoils of the captured cities consecrated? 



B.C. 594.] SOLON'S TRAVELS. 119 

rhaeans with dismay ; nor was it long before victory declared in favor 
of the assailants. The doomed inhabitants were put to the sword 01 
banished ; and the lands, which had been enriched by long and skillful 
culture, were left desolate. From the spoils of the captured cities, a 
fund was created to reward victors at the Olympic games. 

90. Solon goes to Asia. — But Solon, with all the wisdom of his 
institutions, and all the popularity he had acquired as a general and a 
statesman, could not prevent a new ebullition of faction in his beloved 
city. The parties of the Highlands, the Lowlands, and the Coast, still 
contended for superiority ; and what one class approved in his laws, 
another desired to see amended. Anxious for the success of his great 
work of legislation, Solon finally assembled the people; and after 
acknowledging that his own mind was not perfectly satisfied as to the 
utility of all his measures, he obtained from them a pledge to obey his 
laws ten years, while he visited those countries most distinguished for 
the excellence of their government, and revised the constitution he 
had framed for Athens. Having thus secured to his institutions a 
fair trial, he sailed for Egypt and abode some time, as he himself 
relates, — 

" On the Canopian shore, by Nile's deep mouth." 

From Egypt he went to Cyprus, and from Cyprus passed, by request 
of Croesus, king of Lydia, to Sardis.* 

* The interview of Solon with Croesus is very justly celebrated. That monarch, who 
was considered the richest in the world, attempted to dazzle the eyes of the philosopher 
with a display of magnificeot furniture and jewelry. Solon, though a plain republican, 
gazed upon the splendor of royalty without the least surprise ; and Croesus, chagrined at 
the indifference of the humble Grecian, demanded, " If he had ever .seen a happier man V 
Solon replied, "He had; and that person was one Tellus, a worthy citizen of Athens, 
who, having been, above want all his life, died, gloriously fighting for his coxmtry ." 
Croesus again inquired, " Whether, after Tellus, he knew another happier man in the 
world f* Solon replied, " Yes; Oleobis and Biton, famed for their dutiful behavior to 
their mother; for, the oxen not being ready, they put themselves into the harness and 
drew their mother to Juno's temple, who was extremely happy in having such sons, and 
moved forward amidst the blessings of the people. After the sacrifice, they laid doivn 
to rest, but rose no more, for they died that night without sorrow or pain, in the midst 
of so much glory.'''' " Well,'" said Croesus, highly displeased, '■'■and do you not then rank 
us in the number of happy men f" " King of Lydia," 1 " 1 said the philosopher, " the vicissi- 
tudes of life suffer us not to be elated by any present good fortune, or to admire that 
felicity ichich is liable to change. Futurity carries for every man various and uncer- 
tain events in its bosom. He, therefore, ichom heaven blesses with success to the last, is, 
in our estimation, the happy man. But the Tiappiness of him ivho still lives, and has 
the dangers of life to encounter, appears to us no better than that of a champion before 
the combat is determined, and while the crownis uncertain.'''' 

Though Croesus dismissed the stern law-giver with contempt, yet, when his city was 

Questions. — 90.. What factions continued to agitate Athens? By what means did Solon 
endeavor to perpetuate his laws? What was the object of his journey? What [daces did 
he \iait? Recite the anecdote in the note. Where is Cyprus? (Map No. 3.) 



120 GREECE. [b.c. 560. 

91. The Pisistratid^:. — Of the three parties in Athens, Lycurgus, 
leader of the Lowlanders, belonged to the "Old Aristocracy," the 
ancient Eupatridaa. Megacles, distinguished for being the head of the 
AlcmaeonidaB, for numerous victories in the Olympic games, for the 
wealth and splendor of his house, and for having married the heiress 
of the throne of Sicyon, was leader of the Coast party. But the most 
powerful man in Athens was Pisistratus, cousin of Solon, whose 
engaging manners, agreeable person, and persuasive eloquence gained 
for him the pre-eminence among the democratic Highlanders. Each 
party was wedded to its own opinions, and contention seemed to 
increase, without any prospect of termination, till one day Pisistratus 
came into the agora with several marks of violence upon his person. 

92. The people gathered round him with looks of curiosity and con- 
cern. He told them that " as he was going into the country he was 
waylaid by his political opponents, and with difficulty had escaped, 
wounded as might be seen, hence they could judge whether it would 
be safe for any man longer to be a friend to the poor. It was obvious, 1 ' 
he said, "that Tie could no longer live in Attica, unless they would take 
him under that protection which he implored." Immediately one of 
his partisans proposed to grant this injured friend of the people a 
guard of fifty men for the security of his person. The vote was passed, 
and Pisistratus, taking advantage of the terror inspired by his armed 
followers, seized upon the citadel. Lycurgus and his party submitted 
quietly for a time, and the Alcmceonidce left the city. 

93. Though Pisistratus thus became a tyrant, yet he changed nothing 
in the Athenian constitution. All the laws, courts of justice, and 
magistracies remained the same, and he himself once obeyed a citation 
from the Areopagus on charge of murder. He courted the friendship 
of Solon, and often availed himself of his relative's wisdom, but the 
philosopher died the year following these events, at the age of 80. 

taken, himself made prisoner, and laid bound upon the pile to be burned, the truth of thia 
discourse wrung from him the passionate exclamation, " 0, Solon I Solon 1 Solon! 1 ' Upon 
the inquiry of Cyrus, "What god or man be invoked in so great a calamity," he related the 
conversation he had with one of the seven wise men of Greece, and tbe conqueror was so 
struck with it that he released the prisoner and made him his friend. Tbus Solon saved tho 
life of one king, and improved the character of another. 

Questions. — 91.92. Who was Lycurgus? What party did be lead ? Wbat is known of 
Megacles? What particularly distinguished Pisistratus? By what means did he increase 
his power? How was the citadel of Athens built? Ans. The Acropolis, or citadel of Athens, 
was built upon a rock, three-fourths of a mile in circuit. It commanded the town, and was 
ac^ssible only from one side. 93. What did Pisistratus thus become? Did he effect any 
changes in the fundamental laws? Whose friendship did he seek ? At what age did Solon 
die? 



B. c. 554.J GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE. 121 

94. b. o. 554. — "Ups and Downs." A Wedding and a Quarrel. — 

Pisistratus not long after lost all the power he had usurped. The 
rival factions of Megacles and Lycurgus united to overthrow him ; but 
no sooner had they effected their object, than they quarreled among 
themselves. At the end of six years, Megacles sought out the retired 
Pisistratus, and offered to give him his daughter in marriage, and assist 
in restoring him to his former station. Pisistratus returned to Athens, 
amidst the acclamations of the people, and received his young bride 
at the hand of her father with apparent joy ; but, looking upon her as 
descended from a race struck with an everlasting curse, he treated 
her with entire neglect. The Alcmaeonidae, indignant at the affront, 
again made common cause with the party of Lycurgus, and Pisistratus 
was again driven from Athens. He resided ten years in Euboea. 
Hearing then that the government of his rivals had become unpopular, 
he landed upon the plain of Marathon with a considerable force, and 
marched toward Athens. He was everywhere successful ; the disaf- 
fected flocked to his standard, and he soon saw himself possessed of 
greater power than ever before (b. c. 537-127). 

95. What he had twice lost, and now so hardly regained, he deter- 
mined henceforth to hold with a firmer grasp. No longer relying 
upon the affections of the fickle multitude, he took a body of foreign 
mercenaries into pay, and by their aid inspired awe, where he could 
not command respect. His refined and elegant taste, however, led 
him to employ his power for the benefit of Athens. He took every 
method to promote agriculture ; he beautified and adorned the city;* 
he gave liberally of his private property to relieve the distressed, and 
enacted a law making public provision for those wounded in the ser- 
vice of their country. He is said to have founded the first public 
library in the known world, and to have made the first complete edi- 
tion of Homer's poems. He continued to direct the administration of 
government to an advanced age, and died in the city which he had 
robbed of liberty, and crowned with prosperity. 

* He commenced a temple to Olympian Jove, more vast than any the ancient world ever 
saw, but lived to complete only the foundations. He formed the Lyceum, a beautiful 
garden furnished with stately buildings, and watered by a fountain which flowed in nine 
artificial channels through delightful groves, by the side of shaded walks. 



Questions. — 94. "When did Pisistratus lose the power which he had usurped? How was his 
overthrow accomplished ? How was he restored to his former station ? Why was he again 
driven from Athens? How did he afterward gain greater power than he had before ? 95. 
How did Pisistratus secure his power? How did he use it? In what respects? What ia 
said of him as a " founder ?" As a compiler ? What further can you say of him ? 
6 



122 GREECE. [b. c. 527. 

96. Hippias and Hipparchus. — The sons of Pisistratus succeeded 
to his power, and for some years trod in his steps. Hipparchus, who 
seemed to inherit all his father's literary taste, devoted himself to the 
improvement of the moral and civil condition of the people. lie 
invited learned men to the city, and cultivated letters and the arts, 
under their guidance. He caused marble statues of Herman, with 
moral sentences engraved upon the sides, to be erected in the principal 
streets; he relieved the people of a heavy tax ; called in and recoined 
the money ; and for eighteen years contributed not a little to the 
flourishing condition of the country. This period was called the 
" Golden age of Greece ;" and Thucydides, in speaking of the Pisis- 
tratidae, remarks, " Those tyrants singularly cultivated wisdom and 
virtue." A rule so tranquil, so beneficent, and so popular, seemed 
likely to be lasting; when an event occurred, which, though simple in 
itself, brought a train of complicated miseries upon Athens. 

97. Hipparchus, acting in his public capacity, as director of the 
holy rites, dismissed the sister of Hannodius (against whom he had 
a private pique), from bearing the sacred vessels at a public festival. 
This insult stung Harmodius to the quick, and kindled the indignation 
of his friend, Aristogiton. They resolved, in their prosecution of 
revenge, to overthrow the ruling dynasty. At an assembly in which 
the citizens bore arms, they rushed upon Hipparchus and slew him ; 
but his guards, coming up immediately, killed Harmodius, and, not long 
after, Aristogiton was taken and put to death, b. o. 514. Now it was 
that tyranny properly began. Grief, anger, and excitement rendered 
Hippias revengeful and suspicious; he increased his enemies by putting 
several distinguished individuals to death, and began to look abroad 
for the support he had hitherto found among his own people. 

98. The Alcmseonids and their party found means to profit by the 
failing popularity of Hippias. They had employed the years of their 
exile in a work which made all Greece their debtors. The temple of 
Apollo, at Delphi, having been consumed by fire, the Amphictyons 
engaged to give three hundred talents for its rebuilding. The Alc- 
mseonids undertook the job, and finished it in the most superb style, 
exceeding their contract in the expense they put upon the structure, 
and completing the beauty of the edifice by carrying up the whole 

Questions. — 96. By whom was Pisistratus succeeded? What was the character of Hip- 
parchus? Name some of his acts ? How long did the country thus flourish? What waa 
the period called? What remark is quoted? 97. What event occurred to disturb the 
general harmony ? Who were the principal actors in the tragedy that followed? What 
became of them ? Why did Hippias become revengeful and suspicious ? How did he mani- 
fest these feelings ? 9S. By whom was advantage taken of the failing popularity of Hippias ? 



B. c. 510.] THE ALCM^OXID^. 123 

front with Parian marble. The god proved not ungrateful ; for, when- 
ever the Spartans applied to the oracle for counsel, in addition to the 
regular response, they were admonished to give liberty to Athens. 
Now, when Athens was all commotion, the people of Sparta deter- 
mined to obey the injunction of Apollo. They sent out Cleomenes, 
their king, with a band of men to aid in overthrowing the Pisistratid 
party. Hippias was defeated in the field, and the Athenians, fearing 
a siege, consented to deliver up the city in five days. In this time the 
most obnoxious escaped, and Hippias made good his retreat to the 
Hellespont. 

99. Exile and Return.— Clisthenes, son of that Megacles who con- 
tended with Pisistratus, being thus restored to his country, enjoyed a 
brief period of power. To please the people, he changed the number 
of tribes from four to ten, and enacted that fifty persons should be 
chosen from each to constitute a senate ; which was from this time 
called the Council of Five Hundred. His Eupatrid opponents appealed 
to the Spartans, and Cleomenes was in consequence sent with another 
army up from the Peloponnesus, to destroy the dominion he had so 
recently established. A herald preceded him, demanding the banish- 
ment of the Alcmseonidse, as the descendants of sacrilegious parents. 
Not daring to bring the matter before the people, Clisthenes and his 
party retired ; and Cleomenes, emboldened by this success, banished 
700 families from Athens. He was proceeding to remodel the consti- 
tution, and arrange affairs to suit the aristocracy, when he was inter- 
rupted in his labor of love, by a refusal on the part of the Athenians 
to be so governed. The indignant people ran to arms ; and Cleomenes, 
after being besieged in the citadel two days, was permitted to return 
home and take his partisans with him. The Alcrnceonidce again 
returned to Athens. 

100. The Athenians, concerned at a breach with the warlike 
Spartans, and at a loss for allies, sent over to Sardis to form a con- 
nection with Artaphernes, the governor of that place. The satrap 
received the deputies of the little unheard-of republic with that 
haughtiness so becoming in a viceroy. When they were admitted into 
his presence, he demanded who they were, and why they desired an 
alliance with the Persians? These questions having been answered 
with all due respect, he condescended to say, " That if they would 

Questio7is.—98. How did they take such advantage ? To what place did Hippias retreat? 
Trace the Alcmieonids from Delphi to Sparta, to Athens; and Hippias to the Hellespont. 
99. Who was Clisthenes? What was the Council of Five Hundred? State what was done 
by Cleomenes? In what proceeding was he interrupted? What followed? 100. What 
Mas the first public transaction between Greece and Persia? 



124 GREECE. [b. c. 510. 

give earth and water to Darius, they might be received into alliance, 
otherwise they must depart." The ambassadors, considering only the 
immediate danger of their country, consented to these humiliating 
terms. Such was the first public transaction between Greece and 
Persia When the ambassadors returned home, they were severely 
censured by the people for the craven spirit they had manifested, and 
nothing further was done about the alliance with Persia. 

101. The Clouds Gather. — Yet the danger which hung over 
Athens was not yet averted. Cleomenes could not forget that he had 
effected a disgraceful retreat from the Acropolis. He left no means 
untried to excite a league against the Athenians. In the Spartan 
senate he asserted, that, while shut up in the citadel, he discovered, 
among the archives of the republic, a record of the means by which 
the Alcmeeonids bribed the Pythia, and gained the command to give 
liberty to Athens. He urged, therefore, that the Spartan government 
had acted unjustly, irreligiously, and imprudently, in expelling Hip- 
pias ; and that they could not do their duty to gods nor men other- 
wise than by restoring him. By the influence of this speech, Hippias 
was invited to Sparta ; but, as the other states refused to enter into a 
league to restore the banished tyrant, he soon after retired to the court 
of Artaphernes, where he was kindly received, and treated with the 
greatest attention. 

102. The Athenians sent to request that Artaphernes would not 
countenance their banished citizens. The satrap returned for answer, 
" If the Athenians wish to be safe, they must receive Hippias for their 
king." This haughty reply threw all Attica into a ferment. Every 
man was aroused by indignation or alarm. At this critical moment, 
Aristagoras, governor of Miletus, arrived at Athens. He had come to 
persuade the Athenians to assist their brethreu of Ionia in a rebellion 
against Persia. Being introduced into an assembly of the people, he 
used every argument in his power to point their vengeance against the 
Persian rulers of Asia Minor. And he succeeded. Twenty ships were 
voted, to aid the Ionians in their projected revolt; and u these ships," adds 
She historian, "were the beginning of evils to Greeks and barbarians." 

Note. — Pythagoras, a famous Grecian philosopher, flourished in this century. He was a 
native of Sauios, and a great traveler. He is said to have been carried from Egypt, in the 

Questions. — 100. How were the ambassadors treated upon their return ? Trace them to 
Sardis and back. 101. What could not Cleomenes forget? What assertion did he make? 
What did he urge? What influence did the speech have ? To what place did Hippias 
ifterward retire? 102. What message was sent to Artaphernes? What was his reply? 
What was the effect? Who, just then, arrived at Athens? What was his object? How far 
did ne succeed ? What says the historian about the ships ? 



b c. 500.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 125 

army of Cambyses, to Persia, where ho compared what he had learned from the Egyptian 
priests with the doctrines of the magi. From Persia he passed into other countries, col- 
lecting everywhere materials for his great system He finally took up his abode in Crotona, 
in Italy. He established a school there, into which he admitted those whom he thought 
capable of becoming true philosophers. The candidates were first put upon trial by being 
subjected to rigorous exercise, severe abstinence, and strict silence. During these years 
they neither saw nor heard their master, but were instructed by some inferior preceptor, 
who settled every doubt by "ipse dixit,'''' '"he, 11 that is Pythagoras, " said so. 1 ' If any one, 
wearied of this rigid discipline, chose to withdraw, he was dismissed with double the share 
that he had advanced to the common stock : a tomb was erected for him as for a dead man ; 
and he was forgotten as soon as possible. Having passed the severe ordeal, the candidates 
were permitted to hear Pythagoras lecture from behind a curtain. His doctrines they com- 
mitted to memory, that the wisdom of their master need not pass to the vulgar through the 
medium of books. 

He taught by numbers; the Divine mind being considered the Monad, from which 
nature emanates and recedes, as numbers depart from unity. 

The Diatonic scale was discovered by Pythagoras. In passing a smith's forge, he observed 
that three of the sounds made by the four workmen were harmonious, while the fourth was 
discordant. He found the difference to be in the weight of the hammers. Acting upon this 
hint," he went home, and preparing four strings exactly alike, hung upon them four weights 
corresponding to the weights of the hammers. Thus he formed a musical scale, and pro- 
ceded to construct stringed instruments. He conceived that the spheres in which the 
planets move, striking upon ether, must produce a sound, and that, all their motions being 
harmonious, their sounds must be harmonious also; and his scholars, ambitious to increase 
their master's fame, declared that he had been permitted by the gods to " listen to the 
celestial music of the spheres." 

His theory taught that fire holds the middle place in the universe, and that the earth is 
one of the plauets which make their revolutions about the sphere of fire. 

Pythagoras believed in the transmigration of souls, and declared that he could remember 
what passed while he inhabited the bodies of different animals. He lived to an advanced 
age, venerated by the credulous, and loved by the good. He had such a command over his 
countenance that it never expressed either grief, joy, or anger. 

103. b. c. 499. — The Causes of the Persian Invasion. — In b. c. 502, 
in Naxos one of the islands of the Aegean Sea, a revolution broke out, and 
the aristocratic party was expelled from the island. The exiles applied 
to Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, for assistance, which he readily 
promised, knowing that if they were restored by his means he should 
become master of the island. He also obtained the co-operation of Arta- 
phernes, the satrap of Western Asia, by representing to him that not only 
Naxos, but all the islands of the Aegean Sea could be annexed to the Per- 
sian empire. The expedition proved a failure, and Aristagoras threatened 
with utter ruin, determined to urge his countrymen in the Greek cities 
of Asia Minor, to throw off the Persian yoke, and establish a democratical 
form of government. He also crossed over to Greece and applied to Athens 
and Sparta for assistance. Sparta refused to take any part in the war; but 
Athens, incensed because the satrap Artaphernes had said that the • 'Athen- 
ians must receive Hippias for their king," voted to send assistance to the 
Ionians. They landed near Ephesus, and marched immediately to Sardis, 
which thej' took and burnt (b. c. 499). Although they committed no 

Questions. — 103. What is said of the revolt in Naxos ? Where was Miletus? What did 
the Athenians do in Asia Minor? How did the invasion affect Darius ? What did he 
say ? Give the situation of Sardis ? 



12G GREECE. [b. c. 500 

other act of hostility, yet this invasion was enough to arouse the resent- 
ment of Darius against the republics of Greece. When Darius was in- 
formed who the Athenians were, he seized his bow and shot an arrow 
high into the air, exclaiming, " O Great Jove, grant me the power to take 
vengeance on the Athenians." He ordered an attendant to say to him 
three times every day atdinn r, "Sire, remember the Athenians." 

Sparta. — 104. Cleomenes, meantime, opposed Demaratus, his brother 
sovereign, in every thing; and, by procuring a decision against him Lorn 
the Delphic oracle, effected his banishment. Demaratus, like Hippias, 
retired to Persia. Cleomenes having committed suicide, his nephew, 
Leonidas, succeeded to the throne, in the line of Eurysthenes, about the 
same time that Leotychides, nephew of Demaratus, received the power 
vested in the house of Procles. 

105. Situation of the Grecian" States. — And now, while the 
hosts of Persia are gathering to pour their full tide of vengeance upon 
the offending Greeks, let us look at the condition of these little states, 
and inquire into their means for resisting the tremendous shock. The 
Thessalians, who should have guarded the northern frontier, were so 
at variance among themselves, that they could not agree, even 
against a common enemy. The Thebans, and with them almost all 
Beotia, had sent earth and water to the Persians. Argos had been 
almost depopulated by Sparta, and Athens had not yet forgotten the 
injuries she had received from Cleomenes. 

106. Beside these divisions between the different republics, each 
state was divided in its own counsels ; the aristooracy could not brook 
the measures of the people, and the people would not support the 
measures of the aristocracy ; and what was far worse, Hippias and 
Demaratus, the banished princes of Athens and Lacedemon, were resi- 
dents of the Persian court, and instigators of the war. And yet, even 
at these fearful odds, in this distracted state of the country, neither 
Athens Dor Sparta could tolerate the idea of submission to a foreign 
power ; and when the heralds arrived, demanding " earth and water," 
in the name of Darius, king of kings, they dared to exasperate the 
already maddened sovereign, by throwing one of the messengers into 
a ditch, and the other into a well, as the places where they could best 
find the required tokens of submission. 

Questions. — 104. What became of Cleorneues ? Of Demaratus ? By whom was Cleomenes 
succeeded ? What power did Leotychides receive ? 105. In what condition were the 
Thessalians to resist invasion ? The Thebans? Argos? Athens? 106. What was the 
general condition among the state-;? What made matters worse ? What was the spirit 
of Athens and Sparta? By what acts was this spirit manifested? 



b. c. 492.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 127 

107. b. c. 492. — The first armament sent out by Darius, under his 
son-in-law, Mardonius, was shattered by a storm, off Mt. Athos, and 
consequently did not succeed in reaching even the shores of Greece. 
The next three years were spent in preparation on both sides. And 
while Datis and Artaphernes, with the congregated forces of the East, 
are slowly sailing across the Egean, let us look at the military power 
of Athens, against whom the attack is principally directed. 

108. Genealogy of Miltiades. — Many years before this period, the 
peninsula called "The Ohersonesus" had been settled by the Athe- 
nians in a singular manner. During the time of Pisistratus, the native 
inhabitants of the place, being at war with their neighbors, sent some 
chiefs to consult the god. The oracle directed them to invite into 
their country, to found a colony there, the first person who, after their 
quitting the temple, should invite them to the rites of hospitality. The 
chiefs started on their journey homeward. Turning into Attica, their 
way led them past the country-house of Miltiades, a descendant of a 
wealthy and honorable Athenian family. Miltiades, happening to be 
in his portico, and seeing men pass in a foreign dress, accosted them, 
and offered them refreshment. They entered his house, and soon 
acquainted their hospitable entertainer with the purpose of their 
journey, and the oracular response they had received. 

109. Miltiades readily accepted the divine direction. A number of 
Athenians, whom Pisistratus very willingly dismissed, joined in the 
enterprise, and Miltiades, with the followers he had collected, departed 
with the strangers. The colony thus planted acknowledged him as 
their head; and he became, without a struggle, the tyrant of Cherso- 
nesns. He died childless, and his estate and authority passed to the 
son of his brother Cimon. This youth, also named Miltiades, was at 
that time in high favor with Hippias and Hipparchus. These politic 
tyrants, anxious to preserve the authority of the mother country over 
the colony, sent young Miltiades to collect his inheritance, and take 
upon himself the administration of affairs. 

110. When Darius inarched against the Scythians, Miltiades followed 
in his train, and was left, with the other Ionian chiefs, to guard the 

Questions. — 107. When did Darius send out his first armament? "Who commanded it? 
What is said of the expedition? Where was Mt. Athos? (See map No. 2.) How were 
the next three years employed? What is said of Datis and Artaphernes? 10S. Who was 
Miltiades? Who entered his house? Why did they do so? Where had the chiefs been ? 
What direction did the oracle give ? What information did the oracle impart to Miltiades ? 
109. How did Miltiades act in reference to the divine direction? Who joined in the enter- 
prise? What colony was thus planted? Who was Cimon? To what distinction did hia 
son attain? What was the name of that son? What is said of Hippias and Hipparchus? 
A 10. What charge was assigned to Miltiades ? 



128 GREECE. [b. c. 493. 

bridge of boats across the Danube. It was this Miltiades who pro- 
posed to break up the bridge, and free Ionia from the yoke of Persia, 
by leaving Darius to perish among the Scythians; a measure which 
was prevented by that very Histiseus who instigated the Ionian colo- 
nies to revolt, and thus commenced the war which now threatened 
Athens. It does not appear that Miltiades took any active part in the 
revolt; but, finding himself obnoxious to the Persians, he put his effects 
on board five triremes, and sailed for Athens, where he soon gained 
great popularity, and was made one of the generals. 

111. Such was the man who, while the Persians were subduing the 
islands of the Egean and storming Eretria, was employing all his 
energies to raise a force sufficient to meet them, when they should 
make their descent upon Attica. No measures had yet been taken for 
the general security. The Ionian colonies that began the war had 
been conquered ; all the islands had submitted : Eubcea, the guardian 
of the eastern coast, had wasted her best blood in a fruitless resist- 
ance ; and the Persian army had even passed the narrow strait of 
Euripus, before any league for common defense had been proposed. 
On the capture of Eretria, a messenger was sent from Athens to Sparta, 
to communicate the alarming intelligence, and entreat assistance. The 
Lacedemonians promised their utmost help, but their laws and their 
religion, they said, forbade them to march before the full moon, of 
which it wanted five days. In Jive days the Persians might ravage all 
Attica. 

112. The Athenians were thus left to meet the storm alone. Their 
forces were commanded by ten generals of equal authority, and among 
them a question arose, involving the issue of the war, and the fate of 
all Greece. Should they sustain the horrors of a siege within their 
city, or should they advance into the open plain to meet the enemy ? 
It was at this crisis that the genius and experience of Miltiades saved 
his country. He knew the character of the Persians, he knew the 
valor of his countrymen, and he left no means untried till he had pre- 
vailed upon the archon to give the casting vote in favor of marching 
out of the city. Aristides, reflecting that a command which changed 
every day could not be uniform or efficient, resigned in favor of Mil- 
tiades; and, the other generals following his example, this chief was 

Questions.— 110. What proposition did he make? Why was not the proposition carried 
out? Why did Miltiades go to Athens? What success did he gain there? Trace his 
movements. 111. What successes did the Persians gain? How was Miltiades meanwhile 
employed? What is said of Eubcea? Where was the strait of Euripns? (See map No. 2.) 
Eretria? What messenger was sent? What was the reply ? 112. Did the Spartans assist 
the Athenians? By what process was Miltiades invested with sole authority t 



b. c 490.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. I09 

invested with sole authority. As the Persians possessed the command 
of the sea, Miltiades was forced to wait for intelligence as to the point 
of debarkation : they had therefore landed their whole force without 
molestation, upon the eastern coast of Attica, and were in quiet pos- 
session of the plain of Marathon, when the Athenian army appeared 
op. the hills above. 

113. b. 0. 490. — Battle of Maeathoist. — Let us take a view of the 
rival armies, as they lay encamped the night before the battle. The 
barbarian host numbers six-and-forty different nations. They are sur- 
rounded with all the pomp and panoply of war : 100,000 foot-soldiers, 
wearing stockings and turbans, and carrying bows and short spears, 
the successors of those troops who under the great Gyrus conquered 
all Asia, flushed with the hopes inspired by recent victory, wait for 
the morrow to earn new laurels: 10,000 horses, richly caparisoned, 
each carrying a short spear on the forehead, and another upon the 
breast, with 10,000 riders armed with spears and javelins, are prepared 
to pursue the fugitives to the very gates of Athens. The fleet appears 
in the distance, carrying provisions and baggage for the soldiers, chains 
for the captives, and marble for monuments ; and even the servants 
which are left to guard it are more in number than all the inhabitants 
of Attica, men, women, and children, included. 

114. Sheltered by the hills, the 10,000 Athenians, with a few vol- 
unteers from Platea, and attending slaves to act as light armed infantry, 
invoke the aid of their protecting gods and heroes in the approaching 
conflict. Who can prophesy aught but victory to the Persians? Who 
can predict aught but destruction to the Greeks? When Miltiades 
viewed the narrow valley, bounded by rocky and difficult heights, in 
which the Persians were inclosed, he determined to commence the 
attack. Finding his troops animated as he wished, he issued an order 
to lay aside missile weapons, to advance, running down the hill, and 
engage in close fight. This command was obeyed with the utmost 
alacrity. The Persians beheld the mad onset, at first, with ridicule, 
but the shock they sustained soon turned their attention to self- 
defense. The horse, incumbered by the narrowness of the ground, 
could not move without throwing their own ranks into disorder; and 



Questions.— -112. Which party had command of the sea? Where did the Persians land 
their army? Of what place did they take quiet possession? Where was Marathon ? (See 
map No. 2.) 113. What battle is described? How large was the army opposed to the 
Athenians? How were the foot-soldiers attired? What is said of the horses and riders? 
By whom was the army commanded? (See paragraph 107.) 114. How large was the 
Athenian army ? By whom was the battle commenced ? Why did not Miltiades wait to be 
attacked? How was the battle commenced? How did the Persians regard the onset? 
C* 



1 30 GREECE. [b. c. 490 

the infantry, having no use for their bows and slings, threw them 
away, and engaged hand to hand with the Greeks. The center of the 
Persian array maintained its ground till the wings gave way, and then 
all fled for protection to their ships. The Athenians pursued them, 
and, in the confusion of embarkation, made great slaughter. They took 
6even galleys, with all their contents. The Persians lost 6,400 men, 
the Athenians only 192. 

115. Immediately after the battle, an Athenian soldier, still reeking 
with the blood of the enemy, quitted the array and ran with the glad 
news to Athens. He reached the gates, and, shouting to the anxious 
multitude, "Rejoice, rejoice; the victory is burs," fell down exhausted 
and expired. The Persian commander, Datis, was killed in the battle, 
abd the aged tyrant, Hippias, met an inglorious death. The Persian 
armament, however, was still very formidable; nor was Athens, by 
the glorious victory of Marathon, delivered from the danger that 
threatened her. Miltiades, suspecting that an attempt might be made 
upon the city, marched rapidly across the country with his forces, and 
arrived upon the hill, Oynosarges, before the Persian fleet succeeded 
in doubling Cape Sunium, and coming to anchor in the port of Phale- 
reurn. Perceiving the warlike disposition of the Athenian troops, the 
Persian commander, without attempting any thing further, weighed 
anchor, and steered for Asia. 

116 Two days after, a body of Lacedemonians arrived. They had 
marched instantly after the full moon, and reached Athens in three 
days, a distance of not less than one hundred and twenty miles. Find- 
ing themselves too late to share in the glorious action, they visited the 
battle-field, and, after having bestowed many encomiums upon the 
valor of the Athenians, returned home! In the plain a lofty mound 
was erected over the bodies of those Athenians who fell in the con- 
flict, their names being inscribed upon pillars sculptured from that 
very marble brought over by the Persians to commemorate their 
• anticipated victory. This tumulus is still to be seen, and some remains 
of the marble monuments are yet visible. Thus ended the first Persian 
invasion. 

117. Death of Miltiades.' — The popularity and influence of Mil- 

Qnestiona. — 114. Give a further account of the battle. 115. What is related of an Athenian 
soldier? What was the next movement of Miltiades? Where was Cape Sunium ? (See 
map No. 2.) Where did the Persian fleet anchor? What was the next movement of the 
fleet? 116. What help came for the Athenians? Why had not the Lacedemonians arrived 
in time to take part at Marathon? What, then, did they do? What celebrated mound was 
erected ? Is it still to be seen ? 117. What is said of the popularity and influence of Mil- 
tiades? Where was the island of'Paros ? (See map No. 2.) 



B. C. 483.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 131 

tiades were now unbounded. To punish a personal affront of the 
Parians, he requested a fleet of seventy ships to be employed in a 
manner which would bring great riches to the republic. The people 
granted them without requiring him to tell how he meant to use them. 
With this force he attacked the isle of Paros, under pretense of pun- 
ishing the people for assisting the Persian fleet. The Parians resisted 
him bravely; he was dangerously wounded, and obliged to return 
home in disgrace. The glory of Miltiades had roused the slumbering 
envy of the Alcmgeonidae, and his failure at Paros furnished the 
desired occasion for destroying him. 

118. Xanthippus, who had married a niece of Megacles, accused him 
of leaving Paros because he was bribed by the commanders of the 
Persian fleet, then stationed at a little distance on the continent. The 
gallant Miltiades, too ill to leave his house, was brought in his bed 
before the general assembly of that people he had so recently delivered 
from destruction. He attempted no defense, but lay there a melan- 
choly spectacle, while his brother recounted, his services, and endea- 
vored to excite the compassion of his judges. A fine of fifty talents 
was, nevertheless, laid upon him, and, being unable to raise this sum, 
he was thrown into prison, where he died of his wounds. The fine 
was afterward paid by Oimon, his son. 

119. The Peesian Couet. — On the return of his generals from this 
disastrous expedition, Darius determined to invade Greece in person ; 
but troubles in Egypt and at home prevented the execution of his 
design, and, five years after, death closed all his schemes of revenge. 
But the Persians continued to retain the character of a warlike and 
conquering people, which their fathers had bequeathed to them. They 
were not accustomed to insults within their dominion, like the burn- 
ing of Sardis, still less to defeats in the field like that of Marathon. 
Xerxes, therefore, instigated by his courtiers to undertake a war 
which would extend his dominions to the western ocean, began to 
make arrangements for carrying out the design, both by sea and land. 

120. Four years were employed in preparation. An army was col- 
lected, greater than the world ever saw, either before or since. Every 
sea-port, in the whole winding length of coast from Macedonia to the 

Qtiestions— 117. What naval expedition did he undertake? Give an account of it. What 
misfortune at home followed ? 118. What accusation was brought against him ? WLat scene 
occurred? What judgment was pronounced? What further can you state of Miltiades? 
119. Upon what did Darius determine? What prevented him from so doing? By whom 
was D;iritis succeeded as king? What arrangements did Xerxes begin ? By whom was he 
Influenced so to do? What had the Athenians done? 120. How long was Xerxes busy in 
making preparations ? What army was collected ? 



132 GREECE. [b. C. 430. 

present Gulf of Sidra, was ordered to prepare ships and impress mari- 
ners. To prevent all risk of future disasters like that which attended 
the fleet of Mardonius, a ship canal was excavated, at immense expense, 
across the isthmus which joins Mt. Athos to the main-land; and when 
we consider that Xerxes expected to add Europe to his dominions, 
and that the passage across the Egean was very dangerous, and the 
doubling of Mt. Athos especially so, this canal appears to have been 
a very wise preparation. 

121. At length, the levies being completed, the forces from all the 
eastern, southern, and western provinces of Persia assembled at Sar- 
dis. Thither the monarch went himself, to take the command. Thence 
heralds were sent to all the states of Greece (Athens and Sparta 
excepted), demanding earth and water ; and, according to Oriental 
custom, ordering entertainment to be prepared for the king. Every 
thing was ready before the vernal equinox. And now leaving Xerxes 
to prosecute his pompous march toward Thermopylae, where a signal 
defeat awaits him, let us look again at the state of the Grecian republics. 

122. It was now ten years since the battle of Marathon. The Greeks 
had long had intelligence of the immense preparations making in Asia, 
yet still no measures had been concerted for general defense : on the 
contrary, many of the smaller states had sent earth and water to the 
invaders. The Argives, still weak from the slaughter under Cleo- 
menes, declared to the deputies sent to beg assistance, that " The 
Spartan arrogance was intolerable, and that they would rather be sub- 
ject to the barbarians than to Lacedemon;" and they ended their 
indignant refusal by commanding the ministers to leave the territory 
before sunset, on pain of being treated as enemies. 

123. The Spartan kings were Leonidas, and Leotychidas who had 
defeated the Persian fleet in the battle of Mycale. The Athenian 
counsels were governed by Themistocles and Aristides. Both of these 
distinguished men had proved their valor in the battle of Marathon. 
Of the ten Athenian generals, Aristides was the only one that agreed 
with Miltiades upon the propriety of meeting the enemy in the field ; 
and he it was who, renouncing his day of command in favor of the 
superior skill of Miltiades, induced the other generals to do the same. 
Yet, such was the power of faction at Athens, that through the 

Questions.— 120. What canal was made? Where was Mount Athos? (See map No. 2.) 
Why was the canal made ? 121. At what place did the forces of Xerxes assemble ? Where 
was Sardis? (See map No. 2.) At what place did Xerxes take formal command? What 
demands and orders did he issue ? 122. Wheu did the battle of Marathon take place ? Ans. 490 
years b. c. When did Xerxes march agtiinst Sparta? 123. Who were the Spartan kings 
Who the leading Athenian counselors? What is said of Aristides? 



b. c. 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 133 

intrigues of Themistocles, this great and good man had been in banish- 
ment six years, and was now only recalled when his country felt the 
need of his services.* 

124. Themistocles, with the natural penetration of an ambitious 
mind, saw in the approaching struggle an occasion for Athens to rise 
to a new rank in Greece ; and to gain for her this exalted position, 
and at the same time to take the lead in her counsels, had developed 
his energies, and called into exercise all the powers of his great intel- 
lect. Egina, though a small island, possessed the largest fleet in 
Greece. To make Athens a maritime power, he had roused her envy 
of Egina, and by his eloquence had persuaded the people to devote the 
proceeds of a silver mine to the building and equipping of triremes. 
Thus, by his foresight, Athens was furnished in this emergency with a 
fleet of two hundred ships; and now, while the storm of Persian inva- 
sion was slowly approaching, he was busied in allaying animosities, 
and silencing disputes among the Grecian cities, and in devising every 
stratagem to secure a victory which he hoped would make Athens 
supreme in Greece, and Themistocles supreme in Athens. 

125. The Kesponse. — He hoped almost alone. The courage of the 
mass was the stern resolution of despair. Many were dismayed by 
the overwhelming force collecting in Asia, and more were disheartened 
by the fearful response of Apollo ; for, persons deputed by public 
authority, having performed the prescribed ceremonies, entered the 
temple, and as they sat by the shrine, the Pythia exclaimed, " Wretches, 

* The Athenians had a mild way of gratifying envy, which they called a method of 
humbling those who possessed too much power. Every citizen took a shell, and, writing 
upon it the name of the person he considered most obnoxious, threw it into a spot inclosed 
for the purpose with wooden rails. The magistrates then counted the shells, and, if they 
amounted to six thousand, the ostracism was declared complete, and the individual whose 
name was found upon the greatest number of shells was banished ten years. Aristides had 
been commissioned to take charge of the spoils after the battle of Marathon. He discharged 
his trust with the most perfect fidelity. He was also distinguished for his inflexible justice 
in every transaction. Themistocles, envying the love and respect with which he was 
treated, insinuated that he was insensibly gaining the sovereign power, though without the 
ensigns of it. By this means the people were induced to banish the most virtuous man in 
the state. While the shells were getting inscribed at the assembly that passed the sentence 
of ostracism upon him, a peasant approached, and begged him to write the name of Aris- 
tides upon the shell. The good man, surprised at the adventure, asked him " Whether 
Aristides had ever injured him?" "No," said he, "nor do I even know him, but it vexes 
me to hear him everywhere called the Just.'''' Aristides made no reply, but wrote his 
name upon the shell, and returned it to his envious countryman. 

Questions. — 124. What did Themistocles see in the approaching struggle ? Was he selfish 
in his efforts ? What is said of Egina ? How was it situated? (See map No. 2.) What 
had Themistocles induced the Athenians to do? What is a trireme? Ans. A galley or 
vessel with three benches or ranks of oars on each side. How large was the Athenian fleet? 
125. Why were the people disheartened? What was the response. 



134 GREECE. [b. c. 480 

why sit ye there? Leave your houses and the lofty ramparts of your 
city, and fly to the furthest part of the earth. For not the head shall 
remain firm, nor the body, nor the extreme feet, not therefore th6 
hands, nor shall aught of the middle remain, but all shall pass unre- 
garded. For fire and keen Mars, urging the Syrian chariot, shall 
destroy. Nor yours alone, but many other strong towers shall he 
overthrow. Many temples of the immortal gods shall he give to the 
consuming fire. Even now they stand dropping sweat, and shaking 
with terror. Black blood flows over their highest roofs, foreseeing 
the necessities of wretchedness. Depart, therefore, from the sane 
tuary, and diffuse the mind in evils." 

126. The Athenian deputies were thrown into the deepest conster- 
nation. In their anxiety, they consulted with one of the principal 
Delphian citizens; he advised them to take the symbols of suppliants, 
and go again to the oracle. They did so, and addressed the shrine 
thus: "0 sovereign power, prophesy unto us more propitiously for 
our country, regarding these suppliant tokens which we bear, or 
we will not depart from the sanctuary, but will remain here till we 
die." 

127. The prophetess answered, " Minerva is unable to appease 
Olympian Jupiter, though entreating with many words and deep wis- 
dom. Again, therefore, I speak in adamantine terms. All else within 
Cecropian bounds, and the recesses of divine Cithaeron shall fall. The 
wooden wall alone great Jupiter grants to Minerva, to remain inex- 
pugnable, a refuge to you and your children. "Wait not, therefore, the 
approach of horse or foot, an immense army coming from the conti- 
nent, but retreat, turning the back, even though they be close upon 
you. divine Salamis ! thou shalt lose the sons of women, whether 
Ceres be scattered or gathered." 

128. Writing down this answer, which appeared milder than the 
former, the deputies returned to Athens. When the matter came to 
be discussed, various opinions were advanced upon the meaning of 
the words which interested them so deeply. Some thought they 
directed the defense of the citadel, the ancient palisade of which was 
intended by the wooden wall. Others insisted that the wooden wall 
could mean nothing but the fleet, on which the oracle encouraged 
them to depend, but they concluded from the last sentence that, if the 
fleet came to an engagement, it would be defeated off Salamis. They 

Questions.— 126. How did the deputies then act? What address did they make? 127. 
What answer did the prophetess make? 128. To what place did the deputies then return? 
What opinions were advanced ? What advice given ? 



B. c. 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 135 

advised, therefore, to make use of the fleet for quitting, with their 
families and effects, a country which they could no longer defend. 

129. But Themistocles was eloquent, determined, and popular. He 
had procured the building and appointment of the fleet, in view of this 
very emergency; he was supposed to have instructed the Pythia as to 
the wooden walls, and he now ascended the herald's stand to give the 
finishing touch to his deep-laid scheme, by bringing the people into 
his views. "There was one emphatic word,' 1 he said, " which clearly 
proved the late construction wrong. For if the last sentence had been 
meant unfavorably to Salamis, the oracle would scarcely have said, O, 
divine Salamis, but rather, O, wretched Salamis. Defeat at sea was 
therefore portended not to them but to their enemies ; the wooden 
wall unquestionably meant their fleet, and a naval engagement must 
save the country." 

130. The Athenian people felt at once the force of his reasoning; 
Athens was hallowed by the blood of heroes, and by the presence 
of Minerva, the guardian deity. It was determined to remove the 
women and children, for a brief period, to Salamis and Egina ; 
to put the whole strength of the commonwealth into the navy ; 
to increase the number of ships as fast as possible; and to meet 
the enemy at sea. Then it was, after Xerxes had assembled his 
army at Sardis, that " the busy note of preparation" began to sound 
in Greece. 

131. The Congress. — A national congress was formed by each state 
sending deputies to Corinth to consult upon the conduct of the war. 
None were more forward to join the confederacy than the Thessalians. 
When intelligence arrived that the Persian army had crossed the Hel- 
lespont and was advancing toward the frontiers, the Thessalians 
begged that forces might be sent to guard the passes of their country. 
All the soldiers, therefore, that could be assembled were sent up to take 
possession of the vale of Tempe, between Ossa and Olympus ; but 
hearing that the Persians could still enter Greece by going further 
west, they abandoned the pass, and returned to Corinth. The Thes- 
fealians, thus deserted, submitted to the Persian monarch, and many 

Questions. — 129. What had Themistocles already procured ? What supposition was made 
in reference to him? What argument did he use to bring the people into his views? 130. 
What effect did the reasoning of Themistocles have ? When did Greece begin to prepare 
for defense? 181. At what place did a congress meet? Of whom was the congress formed? 
What was the object of the congress? Who were among the earliest to join the confedera- 
tion ? What request did the Thessalians afterward make ? What response was consequently 
made? What were Ossa and Olympus? Ans. Mountains. Where were they situated? 
(See map No. 2.) How did the forces sent afterward act? What was the consequence as 
regards the Thessalians ? 



136 GREECE. [b.c. 430. 

enlisted zealously in his service. The Grecian confederacy, which 
remained to resist the whole force of the Persian empire, now con- 
sisted of a few little states, not equal in territory to the state of Massa- 
chusetts, and whose population would not equal that of a single county 
of England. 

132 Stationing the Troops. — The whole strength of Athens went 
to the naval armament. It was the season for celebrating the Olympic 
games, and it was deemed unnecessary to divert the attention of all 
Greece from these sacred rites ; but, to secure the fidelity of the states, 
which still belonged to the confederacy, the congress thought best to 
give a pledge of their interest in the general welfare, by sending a 
small force to garrison Thermopylae. Leonidas, king of Sparta, fore- 
seeing that they should be called to sell their lives for their country, 
selected from his subjects three hundred men who had sons to bear 
up their names ; and Plutarch states that he and his little band 
solemnized their own obsequies by funeral games before their depar- 
ture. 

133. Each Spartan was attended by one or more Helots; Arcadia 
furnished 2120 men, Corinth armed 400, Phlius* 200, and Mycensef 
80. Messengers were sent to Phocis and Locris to summon their 
whole force. " They were reminded that the invader was not a god, 
but a mortal, liable as all human greatness, to a fall ; and they wero 
bidden to take courage, for the sea was guarded by Athens and Egina, 
and the troops now sent were only forerunners of the Peloponnesian 
army, which would speedily follow. The Phocians immediately sent 
forward 1000 men, and the Locrians wero equally prompt; the Thes- 
pians]: volunteered to the amount of 700, and Leonidas compelled the 
Thebans to furnish 400 more. Thus, with an army of about 6000 men, 
Leonidas marched to defend Thermopylae against all the forces of the 
east. 

134. While the Spartans were thus advancing to their fatal station, 
the fleet was moving round to the adjoining strait of Euripus. The 
Delphians, unable to do any thing for the defense of their country, 
had recourse to the oracle, and were told "to pray to the winds, for 
these might be powerful assistants to Greece." The summer was far 

* A city of Arcadia. t A city of Argolis. ± From Thespis. a city of Beotia. 

Questions.— 131. How much of the confederacy remained ? 132. In what preparations did 
the Athenians invest their strength ? What was deemed unnecessary ? Why was a force 
sent to Thermopylae? How many Spartans did Leonidas select for the purpose? What 
event did he foresee? What statement is made by Plutarch? 133. What additions were 
made to the Spartan army? How large was the entire force of Leonidas? 134 What did 
the oracle tell the Delphians ? 



B. c. 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 137 

advanced when Leonidas and his forces came in sight of Mount Eta, 
and the fleet came to anchor near the adjacent shore. Suddenly the 
heavens began to blacken with clouds. The Athenians, filled with 
joy at sight of the rising tempest, redoubled their cries to the god of 
the Thracian wind. They besought the deity to vindicate Attica, and 
bring destruction on the barbarian fleet, as he had formerly done at 
Athos. 

135. " Whether this really induced Boreas to fall upon the barba- 
rians," says Herodotus, "I cannot undertake to say, but the Athenians 
assert it, and have therefore built him a temple." The storm lasted 
several days. Four hundred Persian galleys were sunk, with all their 
crews, besides the loss of coasting vessels. Fifteen galleys, which 
had been dispersed, some days after fell in with the Grecian fleet, 
and were captured. The prospect of Grecian affairs was now bright- 
ening a little. If their fleet could meet that of Persia with suc- 
cess, and Leonidas defend Thermopylae, Xerxes could never reach 
Athens. 

136. The Fight. — Nor was it long before the day of trial came. 
The first sight of the Persian host, covering the Trachinian plains, 
struck some of Leonidas's followers with dismay, and many were for 
retreating and making a final stand at the isthmus of Corinth ; but 
Leonidas, having set a body of Phocians to guard the only mountain 
path by which they could be surrounded, and having sent off for a 
reinforcement, prepared to give such an example at Thermopylae as 
should rouse all Greece to action. Day after day the haughty monarch 
waited, expecting that the grand display of his forces would frighten 
away the opposing Greeks. A horseman, sent out to reconnoiter, 
returned with the answer that he found the Spartans out of their 
intrenchments ; some quietly seated combing their flowing hair, 
others employed in exercise. At length, despairing of their voluntary 
retreat, he sent out his Median cavalry, and finally the Immortal band, 
to repulse them, but the Grecians held the pass against their utmost 
efforts. 

137. How long the contest might have lasted, had not treachery 
revealed a secret path to the Persians, it is impossible to tell. This 

Questions. — 134. What encouragement did the Greeks receive from the elements? 135. 
Who was Boreas? Did the prayers of the Athenians induce Boreas to act in their behalf ? 
What effect did the storm have? How did Grecian affairs then appear? 136. What wa9 
Thermopylae? Ans. A celebrated defile between Thessaly and Locris. (See map No. 2. > 
How did the first appearance of the Persians affect the men of Leonidas? What prepara- 
tions had Leonidas made? For what did Xerxes look day after day? What information 
did he receive? How did the battle of Thermopylae commence? 137. What treachery 
occurred ? 



138 GREECE. [b. c. 4.30. 

path, neglected as it had been, was not unknown to the Grecians, and 
Leonidas set a company of Phocians to guard it. A Thessalian 
betrayed the secret to Xerxes, and for a considerable bribe offered to 
conduct a body of forces over the mountain to the rear of the Grecian 
camp. They started about dusk, and, marching rapidly all night, 
reached by daybreak the spot where the Phocian guard was posted. 
The oaks, with which the mountain was covered, concealed their 
approach. The Phocians were first alarmed by the noise of a multi- 
tude of men treading among the fallen leaves. They sprang to their 
arms, and, retreating to the side of the path, prepared to sell their 
lives as dearly as possible; but the, Persians, having another pur- 
pose in view, left them unharmed, and made all speed for the plains 
below. 

138. The Immortal 300 and their King. — When Leonidas learned 
that the Persians were advancing in his rear, he called a council of 
war. Opinions were divided ; some thinking it best to maintain their 
post, and others contending that this would be a useless waste of lives. 
The debate ended in a general resolution to retreat with all speed to 
their respective homes, with the exception of Leonidas and his three 
hundred Spartans, and the gallant Thespians, who determined to 
remain, and give such a specimen of Grecian valor as should forever 
strike terror into the hearts of the Persians ; and they retained the 
Thebans as hostages. As the oracle had declared that either Lacede • 
mon or her king must perish, Leonidas resolved at once to be himself 
the sacrifice. 

139. The whole Persian army was under arms before the sun rose, 
the king himself attending in solemn pomp to wait the appearance of 
the luminary, for beginning the devotional ceremonies prescribed by 
the Persian religion. The Spartans, having given up all thoughts 
either of conquering or escaping, looked upon Thermopylae as their 
bnrying-place, and prepared to leave their bodies a monument to after 
ages, of their obedience to that law of Sparta, which forbade a soldier 
to fiy from an enemy. When their frugal breakfast was prepared, 
Leonidas exhorted his men to take some nourishment, telling them 
that they should sup that night with old Pluto, upon which they set 
up a shout as if they had been invited to a banquet. About the mid- 
dle of the forenoon, the Persians advanced to the attack in front and 



Questions.— 1^1. What is said of the Phociaus? 138. Why did Leonidas call a council of 
war ? What opinions were offered ? What resolution was formed ? What declaration had 
the oracle previously made? 139. What preparations were made by the Persians early on 
the following morning ? What, by the Spartans ? 



B. c. 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 139 

rear ; but Leonidas, nothing daunted, collected his little band before 
a wall which had been built in former times, and awaited the charge. 

140. The first shock was exceedingly violent. Leonidas gave loose 
to the fury of men prepared for death. Advancing a little, he attacked 
the Persians in the widest part of the valley, made great slaughter 
among them, and caused such confusion, that, through want of room, 
n nmbers of the ill-disciplined multitude were forced into the sea, and 
many were trodden to death by their own people. The Spartan king 
fell early in the engagement, and the contention for his body animated 
the combatants to new fury. But when the Persian band came up in 
the rear, and the Spartans saw on every side the bristling ranks of 
steel, they retreated again to the narrow wall, and, placing their backs 
against it, fought till every man was slain ;* and never was field of 
glory strewed with braver dead. This is that battle of Thermopylae 
to which allusion is so often made ; and this is that Leonidas whose 
name still takes the highest rank in the list of heroes. 

141. The Naval Engagement. — During the memorable scene at 
Thermopylae, the hostile fleets met in the neighboring channel. The 
business of the Grecian fleet, like that of the army, was to defend the 
strait. A sharp skirmish resulted in favor of the Greeks, and the capture 
of 30 galleys. Scarcely had the rival ships cast anchor, when Boreas 
again excited the elements to anger. The sea heaved in tumultuous 
waves toward the frowning skies, and the skies in turn poured down 
their torrents upon the troubled sea. The drift of the storm carried 
the wrecks of the late engagement among the Persian ships. Their 
cables were entangled, their oars impeded ; repeated flashes of light- 
ning seemed to discover the horrors of the scene, while the thunder, 
resounding among the summits of Pelion, struck the Ionian seamen in 
Persian pay with the idea that the gods were thus declaring their 
displeasure, because they were bearing arms against their mother 
country. Superstitious terror weakened their strength, and embar- 
rassed their efforts. A squadron also, which had been sent around 
Euboe to attack the Grecians in the rear, was driven upon the rocks 
of that dangerous coast, and all perished. " Thus the deity to whom 

* Aristodemus and PaniteB were absent at the time, but as it appeared that they 
might have been there had they made the necessary exertion, no one would keep company 
or converse with them. Puntites, in despair, strangled himself, but Aristodemus lived to 
redeem his character at the battle of Platea. 

Questions.— 139. What movement was then made by Leonidas? 140. Give a further 
account of the battle. What is said of Thermopylse ? Of Leonidas? 141. Whore, mean- 
while, did the hostile fleets meet? What was the business of the Grecian fleet? Whal 
encouragement did the Greeks receive from the elements? 



140 GREECE. [b. c. 4S0. 

they had prayed again interposed to reduce the Persian force more 
nearly to an equality with the Grecian." 

142. The Persians Advance. — The Persians were thus prevented 
from making any advance, but when intelligence came that Leonidas 
and his men were slain, and that the rest of the army had retreated, 
the commanders of the Grecian fleet weighed anchor and sailed for 
the Saronic Gulf. Xerxes and his army proceeded south from Ther- 
mopylae, guided by the Thessalians. They spared the places which 
had formerly submitted, but they burned thirteen cities, whose gallant 
people refused to join their enemy's ranks. Some were reduced to 
slavery, and others fled beyond Parnassus. The Peloponnesian laud 
army determined to abandon Attica to its fate; they therefore retired 
to Corinth, built a wall across the isthmus, and set Cleombrotus, 
brother of Leonidas, to guard it. In Athens, the alarm was extreme. 
All their frontier lay exposed to the advancing enemy ; all their men 
of war were on board the fleet ; and the only resource left for the 
deserted inhabitants was to seek a refuge in the islands, which would 
doubtless be in their turn attacked. 

143. At the awful moment of abandoning their country, all hearts 
were filled with the deepest anguish ; the women and children mingled 
their cries together, and the whole shore resounded with lamentations. 
Some old persons, too infirm to move, and some individuals, who 
sought the citadel wooden walls, remained behind. Themistocles, to 
facilitate the embarkation, had recourse to popular superstition. It 
was believed from ancient times in Athens, that a large serpent was a 
divine guard to the temple of Minerva; and it was customary to place 
cakes as an offering to this reptile, every new moon. The chief-priest 
of the temple declared, that the cakes which had hitherto always been 
eaten by the divine serpent now remained untouched ; an incontro- 
vertible proof that the goddess had forsaken the citadel. 

144. This induced the citizens readily and quietly to quit their city; 
nay, so far were they moved by it, that they stoned to death an orator 
who tried to persuade them to remain and submit to the king ; and 
the women, equally excited, inflicted the same punishment upon his 



Questions.— -142. Why did the Grecian fleet sail? For what waters did it sail ? Where 
was that gulf? Ans. Between Attica and Argolis. (See map No. 2.) In what direction 
did Xerxes and his army move? What places did they spare? How many cities did 
they burn? What became of the inhabitants of the destroyed cities? What decision was 
made as regards Attica? What defensive measures were then adopted? What was the 
prospect for Athens? 143. How did the people behave on leaving Athens? Why did 
Themistocles resort to superstition? What belief prevailed? What declaration did the 
chief-priest make? 144. With what effect ? 



B. c. 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 141 

wife. The city was finally evacuated, and the inhabitants, bidding a 
sorrowful farewell to their houses and temples, sailed away to the 
neighboring islands of Salamis, Egina, and Troesene. They were 
kindly received, and hospitably entertained. The Persian army, 
advancing meanwhile, found no obstacle till they reached Athens. 
After a longer resistance from the devotees than could have been 
expected, the place was taken, the temples pillaged, and the houses 
burned. 

145. Themistocles gains his Point. — Intelligence of this event 
came to the fleet, while a council of war was sitting. It occasioned 
such alarm, that some of the commanders left the debate, hastened on 
board their galleys, and prepared for instant flight. Night came on, 
and all was confusion. Themistocles, firm in his former opinion, per- 
suaded Eurybiades* to summon another council immediately. There, 
in the course of debate, he urged the necessity of protecting the 
islands, and concluded with declaring, "That if so little regard was 
shown to the Athenian people, who had risked every thing in the 
Grecian cause, their fleet would either make terms with the enemy, or 
seek some distant settlement for a people so unworthily treated." 

146. Eurybiades, alarmed, bent to this argument, and it was decided 
to meet the enemy in the bay of Salamis. Themistocles, fearful still 
of defection, sent a trusty messenger to Xerxes, to say that the Athe- 
nians thought of deserting to the Persians, and that the other confede- 
rates had determined to fly. The great king, alarmed at the idea of 
his prey's escaping from his grasp, caused his fleet to form a semi- 
circle, and cut off all retreat from the Greeks. Thus Themistocles 
saw the Grecian fleet confined in the very place he wished, and the 
ships of the enemy so closely wedged in, that their numbers proved a 
serious embarrassment. 

147. Battle of Salamis. — In the sea-fights of the ancients, the 
principal advantage was gained by driving the beak of the vessel into 
the enemy's galley; and the skill of the Grecians in turning and row 
ing was much greater than that of the Persians. By daybreak, on 
the 20th of October, b. c. 480, the two fleets were drawn out in order 

* The Spartan admiral of the fleet 

Questions.— 1U. Where did the Athenians seek shelter ? What then befell Athens? 145. 
What intelligence reached the fleet ? What was the effect ? Who was the Spartan admiral ? 
To what did Themistocles persuade Eurybiades? What then did Themistocles urge and 
declare? 146. What decision was arrived at? Why did Themistocles send to Xerxes? 
What word did he send ? What measures did Xerxes then adopt? What did Themistocles 
then see? 147. How was the principal advantage among the ancients gained in sea-fights? 
In what did the Grecians excel the Persians? When did the battle of Salamis occur? 



142 GREECE. [b. c. 480. 

of battle. The shores, the heights, the fields of the neighboring coast, 
were crowded with anxious spectators. Xerxes, enthroned upon a 
lofty promontory, overlooked the scene. As the sun rose, the Persian 
trumpets sounded ; the Greeks lifted up their loud paean ; the harbors 
of Phalereum, Peiraeus, and Munychia* sent forth their vulture-beaked 
triremes, and every man prepared himself for the conflict. 

148. The onset was vigorous on both sides. Bat space did not suf- 
fice for the Persians to bring their whole fleet regularly into action ; 
zeal to distinguish themselves in the presence of their sovereign hur- 
ried them confusedly forward ; damage, loss of oars, and wounds in 
the hull from the beaks of their own ships, followed; the Athenians 
bore down everything before them; "shortly the sea itself became 
scarcely visible, from the quantity of wreck and floating bodies." 
Such is the expression of the poet, who fought himself in the Athenian 
squadron. The Lacedemonians sustained their part with invincible 
bravery; some of the Ionians revolted to their parent country; the 
confusion increased, and the rout became general. All the Persian 
galleys, that could disengage themselves from the fatal straits, fled; 
some were taken, many were sunk, and a few escaped.! Forty Gre- 
cian triremes were destroyed ; but most of their crews saved them- 
selves on board other vessels. 

149. The Joyful Morning. — The defeat of this fleet deranged the 
measures of the Persian commander. No port was near, capable of 
protecting its shattered remains. A hasty order was that night given 
to sail for the Hellespont. Day broke, and the Greeks, who expected 
a renewal of the action, looked in vain for an enemy. The bay of 
Salamis, the Saronic gulf, lay calm and peaceful in the morning light, 
unconscious of the bloody tragedy which had been acted upon their 
surface. Xerxes hastily decamped with his land forces, and Themis- 
tocles, to give wings to their speed, gave them intimation that a pro- 
ject was on foot to destroy the bridge over the Hellespont, a measure 
which he himself proposed, but which Eurybiades prevented, on the 
ground of the danger of reducing so powerful an enemy to despair. 

* The three harbors of Athens. 

t Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassns, had joined Xerxes fleet with five ships. She dis- 
played so much courage and skill in this battle, that the monarch remarked, " His men had 
acted like women in the fight, and his women, like men." Had Xerxes listened to her 
a Ivice, he would not have attacked the Grecians in the narrow strait of Salamia. 

Questions. — 147. How was it commenced ? 14S. Give a full account of the battle? 149. 
How did the results of the battle affVct the measures of Xerxes? What hasty order wag 
given? What was the state of affairs on ihe joyful morning? What is said of the retreat 
v'f Xerxes? 



s. c. 480.] PERSIAN" INVASIONS. 143 

Xerxes, however, lost no time upon his backward journey; and 
with the exception of Mardonius and 300,000 men, who went into 
quarters in Thessaly, Greece was in one month freed from its inva- 
ders. 

150. The Athenians Return. — The effect of so glorious, so impor- 
tant, and so unexpected a victory as that of Salamis can be imagined, 
but cannot be described. The Athenians returned to their desolate 
homes; and the sound of the axe and the hammer mingled with the 
happy voices of those who engaged in rebuilding their houses and 
temples. Winter approached, and with it came a political calm, very 
unusual among the factious states. Gratitude to the gods, for the sig- 
nal deliverance they had granted, seemed to swallow up all feelings of 
ancient enmity. The most valuable portions of the spoil were publicly 
dedicated to the gods ; honors were decreed to the first and second for 
merit in war. 

151. All Greece now resounded with the fame of Themistocles; and 
when the Grecian commanders met in the Temple of Neptune, to 
award the palm of individual merit, every man gave the first vote for 
himself, and nearly every one the second for Themistocles. The Spar- 
tans invited him to their city ; and though they gave to their own 
general, Eurybiades, a crown of olive leaves for superior bravery, they 
conferred a similar distinction upon Themistocles for wisdom and mari- 
time skill. They added a chariot, the best the city possessed ; and 
when he returned, an escort of three hundred knights attended him to 
the borders of the country. 

152. Threats of War and Proposals of Peace. — Spring, and 
the recollection that Mardonius was still in Thessaly, awakened the 
Greeks from their happy repose. Before making any warlike demon- 
strations, Mardonius sent Alexander, king of Macedon, to Athens, with 
offers of peace; and this important news, quickly spreading through 
the country, the Spartans also sent ambassadors to exhort the Athe- 
nians to prove faithful to Greece. By the judicious directions of 
Aristides, the Lacedemonian deputies and Alexander were admitted tc 
an audience of the people, at the same time. Silence was proclaimed. 
Alexander rose and addressed the assembly in this simple and anti- 
quated style : 

153. "Athenians! thus saith Mardonius: — The commands of the 



Questions.— 149. Did Xerxes take all his men with him ? 150. Describe the events subse- 
quent to the battle. 151. Who was declared first in war ? How wju Themistocles honored ? 
152. Who was sent on an important mission? By whom was he sent? On what mission 
was Alexander sent? What was done to counteract this mission ? How did Aristides ar 
range the audience? 153. Give the speech which Alexander ms.de? 



144 GREECE. [b. c. 479 

king are come unto me, saying, ' / forgive the Athenians all their 
offenses against me. Koiv, therefore, Mardonius thus do; restore to 
them their territory, and add to it whatsoever themselves shall choose, 
leaving them to their own laics; and if they will make alliance with 
me, rebuild all the temples which have been burnt.'' Such being the 
king's commandment to me, so I must necessarily do, unless you pre- 
vent. For myself, I say to you thus: Why would you persevere in 
making war against the king? You cannot overcome him. You know 
how numerous his armies are, and what they have effected. As a 
friend, I recommend to you, not in a vain contest to lose your own 
country, but to seize the honorable opportunity of this offer, from the 
king himself, for making peace. Be free: and let there be an alliance 
between us without fraud or deceit." 

154. Alexander added a few words of his own, in which he urged 
the Athenians to accept the offers of the king, because they would 
thus secure, not the safety of their city only, but the sovereignty of 
Greece. The king of Macedonia concluded, and the chief of the Spar- 
tan ministers rose. "The Lacedemonians," he said, "have sent tc 
request that you will admit nothing to the prejudice of Greece, nor 
receive any proposal from the Persians. We grieve for your sufferings, 
that now, for two seasons, you have lost the produce of your lands; 
and that the public calamity should so long press so heavily on indivi- 
duals. We will engage to maintain your families while the war shall 
last. Let not, therefore, Alexander persuade you to accept Mardonius's 
offers; prudence forbids it, for you well know that among barbarians 
there is neither faith nor truth." 

155. In the name of the Athenian people, Aristides made the fol- 
lowing answer to Alexander : " We know that the power of the Per- 
sian empire is many times greater than ours, but, independency being 
our object, we are determined to defend ourselves to the utmost. 
You may therefore tell Mardonius that the Athenians say, 'While the 
sun holds his course, we will never make alliance with Xerxes, but, 
trusting in our gods and heroes, whose temples and images he, setting 
at naught, has burnt, we will persevere in resisting him.' " Then, 
turning to the Lacedemonian ministers, the orator thus continued his 
discourse : 

156. "After the proofs you have had of the resolution of the Athe- 
nians, your fear that they would accept the terms of the barbarian 

Questions.— 154. What reply was made by the chief of the Spartan ministers? 155. What 
was the reply of Aristides to Alexander? 156. In what words did he address the Lacede- 
monians ? 



B. c. 479.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 145 

becomes dishonorable apprehension. No riches, nor the offer of the 
finest country on earth, could bribe us to connect ourselves with the 
Persians to the enslaving of Greece. The images and temples of our 
gods, burnt and reduced to ashes, prevent it ; our connection as a 
Grecian people in blood and language, our common dedications to the 
gods, our common sacrifices, and our similar customs and manners, 
forbid it. Know then this, if before ye knew it not, that while one 
Athenian survives, we will never ally ourselves with Xerxes. We 
acknowledge your kind attention, in proposing to maintain our fami- 
lies; we will not, however, be burdensome to you. These, then, being 
our resolutions, let there be no delay on your side. Your army must 
march immediately, for Mardonius will move instantly upon learning 
that we have rejected his proposals. Before, therefore, he can arrive 
in Attica, it will behoove us to meet him in Beotia." 

157. Athens Burned. — With these answers, the king of Macedonia 
and the Spartan ambassadors departed. The Athenians had conjec- 
tured rightly. Upon the failure of his negotiation, Mardonius broke 
up his camp, and advanced immediately, by nearly the same road that 
Xerxes had taken, toward Athens. The Spartans hesitated and 
delayed as before; the Persian army was already in Beotia; and the 
Athenians, left defenseless once more, retired to Salamis, and wit- 
nessed from its shores the conflagration of the houses they had rebuilt* 
Finally, the Peloponnesians put themselves in motion, and Mardonius, 
afraid to meet them in the hill-country of Attica, withdrew to Beotia. 
He chose his station on the border of the Platean lands, where he for- 
tified a space of about a square mile, and fixed his camp. 

158. Thither the confederated Greeks, amounting to 70,000 regular 
soldiers, with attendant slaves and Helots, headed by Pausanias,* pur- 
sued him, and pitched their camp over against the camp of the Per- 
sians, the little river Asopus flowing tranquilly between them. As 
the diviners on both sides declared that the attacking party should be 
defeated, the commanders made their dispositions to act upon the 
defensive ; and, with the exception of some skirmishing among the 
cavalry, ten days were passed in inaction, each party waiting in the 
vain hope that the other would begin the engagement. At length 
Mardonius, seeing but a few days' provision left, and that fresh troops 

* Pausanias, son of Cleoaibrotus, was cousin and guardian of Plistonax, the young son of 
Leonidas. 

Questions.— 157. What movement was made by Mardonius? What destruction did the 
Athenians witness? To what place did Mardonius retire? 15S. How many Greeks rallied 
to meet the enemy ? Why was an encounter mutually delayed ? Whit decided Mardoniua 
\o make an attack ? What plan of attack did he decide upon ? 
7 



14G GREECE. [b. c. 479. 

daily arrived to the Grecians, resolved to pass the Asopus next morn- 
ing, and fall upon his enemies before they had time to prepare for the 
conflict. 

159. At midnight, however, a man on horseback softly approached 
the Grecian camp, and begged to speak with Aristides. The watchful 
general came immediately, and the unknown person said to him, " I 
am Alexander, king of Macedon, who, from the friendship I bear to 
you, have exposed myself to the greatest dangers, to prevent your 
fighting under the disadvantage of a surprise; for Mardonius, impelled 
by the scarcity of provision, has determined to attack you to-morrow, 
by daybreak." The king of Macedon, having thus testified his interest 
in the welfare of his country, departed as secretly as he came; and 
Aristides repaired immediately to the tent of Pausanias with the im- 
portant intelligence he had received. With all possible dispatch the 
other officers were summoned, and sent throughout the camp, wzth 
directions to put the troops under arms; an arrangement which was 
scarce completed before the gray mists of morning began to roll up 
the sides of Cithgeron,* and skim along the margin of the river. 

160. To place the Athenians opposite the Persians, Pausanias 
ordered thera to change places with the Spartans, wheeling from 
the left wing to the right ; which they did, exhorting one another, by 
the way, to act with bravery. "The enemy," said they, "bring 
neither better arms nor bolder hearts than they had at Marathon ; 
they come with the same bows, the same embroidered vests, and pro- 
fusion of gold ; the same effeminate bodies, and the same unmanly 
souls. "We fight, not like them, for a tract of land, or a single city, 
but for the trophies of Marathon and Salamis, and that Athens may 
have the glory of them." Mardonius, seeing this change in the posi- 
tion of his enemies, moved his Persians to bring them opposite the 
Spartans; upon which, Pausanias again changed his wings, and 
brought the Athenians face to face with the Persians. 

161. Thus the day passed without any action at all. In the even- 
ing, the Greeks held a council of war, in which they determined to 
decamp, and take possession of a place better supplied with water, 
because the springs of the present camp were spoiled by the enemy's 
horse. "When night was come, the Greeks struck their tents, the 

* A mountain ridge, at the foot of which the Greeks were encamped. 

Questions. — 159. Give an account of Alexanders visitation? What action was conse- 
quently taken? 160. What army changes did Pausanias make? How did the Athenian 
wddiers reason? What changes did Pausanias again make? 161. "Upon what did the 
Greeks determine? Give an account of the movement. 



B.C. 479.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 147 

Athenians leading the way by the plain, toward the little city of 
Platea; the allies following confusedly; and the Spartans reluctantly 
bringing up the rear, over the foot of Cithasron, many of them so indig- 
nant at the idea of retreat that they could scarcely be made to keep 
their ranks. The day was dawning, when Mardonius, seeing the 
Greeks, as he thought, retreating, summoned his men to pursue and 
secure the easy victory. The barbarians, thinking they had only to 
plunder the fugitives, rushed on, uttering loud shouts, and clanking 
their arms, as if to increase the fright of the Grecians. Pausanias, 
seeing this, ordered his men to stop and fall into their ranks; yet, 
through the confusion that reigned, they did not engage readily, but 
continued scattered in small parties, even after the fight had begun. 

162. In the mean time, Pausanias offered sacrifice, but, as no auspi- 
cious token appeared, he commanded his men to lay down their 
shields at their feet, and wait his orders. The steadiness and patience 
of the Spartans now appeared in a wonderful manner. While the 
enemy were bearing down upon them with insulting shouts, and 
arrows were flying thick and fast around them, they stood defenseless, 
waiting the time of heaven and their general; and, without lifting a 
shield, or hurling a spear, suffered themselves to be slain in their 
ranks. Pausanias, with tears trickling from his eyes, turned with 
uplifted hands toward the temple of Juno, and besought the goddess 
that " they might at least be permitted to show the enemy that they 
had brave men to deal with." 

163. The very moment that he uttered this prayer, the diviners 
discovered the desired tokens, and Pausanias gave the signal for action. 
At once, the soldiers, who a moment before had stood passive and 
silent as targets for the arrows of the enemy, grasped their shields, 
and, heaving their bristling pikes, rushed in solid phalanx, like an 
infuriated animal, upon their assailants. The barbarians perceived at 
once that they had to do with men ready to spill the last drop of theii 
blood for their country. They fell back and rallied, they sent forth 
storms of arrows, they betook themselves to their swords, and, grap 
pling close with the Greeks, made a long and obstinate resistance. 

164. The Athenians all this while stood still, expecting the Lacede- 
monians; when the clash of armor reached their ears, they hastened 
toward the place where the noise was heard, but were intercepted by 
the Thebans and other allies of the Persians. The battle was thus 

Questions.— 161. How, at last, did the encounter begin ? 162. For what did Pausanias 
wait? How did the Spartans manifest steadiness and patience? How did Pausanias theu 
ftot? 163. Give an account of what followed ? 164. Giva a further accouDt of the battle. 



14S GREECE. [b. c. 479. 

divided into two parts; the Spartans contending fiercely with the 
Persians, and the Athenians and other allies being equally engaged 
with the treacherous Greeks. Mardonius, who had thought himself 
pursuing an enemy that dared not resist him, was filled with the 
deepest anguish when he saw the tide of victory tunning against him. 
He rushed into the thickest of the battle; he encouraged his men; 
he fought with desperation; but he fell, mortally wounded, and the 
hopes of the Persians fell with him. His death was the signal for 
instant flight ; and the rout and pursuit once commenced, the slaughter 
became dreadful. 

165. The Athenians, who had just broken the ranks of the Thebans, 
hearing that the barbarians had retreated to the wooden fortifications 
of their camp, permitted their treacherous brethren to escape, while 
they pressed on to assist in destroying the last hope of the enemy. 
The passions of the Greeks were inflamed by long distress and danger, 
and now that the day of vengeance had arrived,-they showed no mercy. 
Of the 300,000 men who had been left with Mardonius, 40,000 horse 
made good their retreat with Artabazus, but of the others, not 3,000 
escaped alive from the ruins of the camp. 

166. The Supper. — Sated with slaughter, the conquerors turned 
their attention to plunder. The appendages of the royal household 
were found in the tent of Mardonius, and most of the domestic slaves 
had escaped the massacre. Pausanias, after surveying the richness of 
the scene, ordered the slaves to prepare a supper exactly as they had 
been accustomed to do for Mardonius. His orders were diligently 
executed ; the splendid furniture was arranged ; the side-boards dis- 
played a profusion of gold and silver plate ; and the table was covered 
with the most exquisite elegance. Pausanias then directed his usual 
Spartan supper to be placed by the side of this sumptuous entertain- 
ment, and summoning the principal Grecian officers, " I have desired 
your company here," he said, "to show you the folly of the Persian 
general. Living luxuriously as you see at home, he came thus far to 
take from us such a miserable pittance as ours." 

167. Disposition of the Spoil. — The Helots attending upon the 
Lacedemonian camp were ordered to collect the spoil. Tents and 
their furniture, collars, bracelets, hilts of cimeters, cups of gold, and 
other utensils of the same precious metal, together with horses, camels, 



Questions.— 164. What is said of the conduct of Mardonius? What followed his death ? 
165. What did the Athenians permit? How many men belonging to the army of Mardonius 
were slain ? By what name is that battle known? Ans. Platea. 166. Give an account of 
the supper. 167. What wei i the principal spoils of the victors ? 



K c. 479] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 149 

slaves, and women, were the principal booty. A tenth whs first set 
apart as an offering to the gods. The historian says, " from this tenth 
the golden tripod, which stands upon the three-headed brazen serpent 
next to the altar, was dedicated to the god at Delphi. 1 ' The brazen 
statue of Jupiter, fifteen feet high, at Olympia, and the brazen statue 
of Neptune, at Corinth, were derived from the same source. The 
Tegeans found a brazen manger of very curious workmanship, which 
they were allowed to place in the temple of Minerva, with this inscrip- 
tion : " To that divine Wisdom which directs what human ignorance 
calls Chance.'''' 

168. Consummation of the Victories. — Meanwhile, Artabazus and 
his followers pursued their journey with all speed. They passed the 
mountains of Thessaly and crossed the greater part of Macedonia 
without loss. But at the passage of the river Strymon, those Greeks 
who had submitted to the Persians turned against them ; slew great 
multitudes ; and took prisoners enough to enrich themselves greatly 
by the sums paid for their ransom ; so that this battle of Strymon 
had lasting fame, as the consummation of misfortune and disgrace to 
Persia, arid of safety and glory to Greece. 

169. While the arms of the confederate Greeks were thus won- 
derfully crowned with success against the immediate invaders of 
their country, the fleet, which had lain all summer inactive at 
Delos, was at length excited to enterprise. The commanders, Xan- 
thippus and Leotychidas, received secret messengers from the Ionian 
colonies, with the intelligence that they were ready to revolt, and 
only waited the appearance of the Grecian galleys off the coast 
to rise to action. The very next day the whole fleet sailed for 
Sam os. 

170. The Phenicians, the best navigators in Persian pay, seeing no 
prospect of any further business, had requested permission to depart 
before the equinoctial storms, and had by this time reached home. 
The Persians, greatly alarmed at the appearance of the Grecians, 
steered for the promontory of Mycale, where, drawing up their galleys 
upon the beach in the form of a fort, they raised a wall of stones 
around them. It was not without surprise that the Grecians found 

Questions. — 167. What disposition was made of them ? 16S. What command did Arta- 
bazus have ? How far did he get without loss ? Where was the river Strymon ? (See map 
No. 2.) What is its present name? Arm. Karasou, or Black Eiver. Give an account of 
the battle of Strymon. 169. Where was the island of Delos? (See map No. 2.) Samos? 
(Same map.) Who commanded the fleet of the confederate Greeks? What secret intelli- 
gence did they receive? What move did they then make? 170. Wli3 T had the Phenicians 
gone home? What are equinoctial storms? Where was Mycalo ? (See map No. 2.) What 
occurred there ? Give an account of it. 



150 



GREECE 



[b. c. 479. 



the sea yielded to them ; and, encouraged by snch evident signs of 
fear, they agreed to disembark and attack the Persians in their in- 
trenchments. They did so ; the Ionians turned to the side of their 
countrymen, and never was rout more complete, or ruin more dread- 
ful. Almost all the Persians were slain. The Greeks carried off 
every valuable of easy removal, then set fire to the rest, and the whole 
Persian fleet was consumed. This took place the very day of the 
battle of Platea, September 22d, b. o. 479. 

171. The season was too far advanced for any other attempts upon 
Ionia. The Grecian commanders therefore sailed for the Hellespont, 
to break up the bridges there, but the storms raised by the Thracian 
wind had done the work for them; the few Persians in the neighbor- 
hood fled at their approach, and the Grecian fleet, having cleared the 
Egean of every foe, crowded all sail for their own delightful harbors. 
The Persian monarch remained in Sardis, to see the sad relics of his 
forces that found means to fly from Mycale, and to receive the over- 
whelming intelligence of the still greater loss of his army in Greece. 
Shortly after, he moved to his distant capital of Susa. "Such was 
the conclusion of the expedition of Xerxes, after two campaigns won- 
derfully glorious to Greece, and both in themselves, and for their 




10. Phalereum. 
1. Munychia. 
12. Purt of Piraeus. 



Questions.— 170. When did the event occur? 171. What further was accomplished by tb« 
Grecian fleet? What is said of the conclusion of the expedition of Xerxes? 



b. c. 478.] REBUILDING OF ATHENS. 151 

known consequences, perhaps the most remarkable and important in 
the annals of mankind. 1 ' 

172. Monuments. — The usual piety of the Greeks then exerted itself 
in dedications to the gods and honors to the dead. Eighty talents of 
silver were allotted to the little city of Platea, with which a temple 
was erected to Minerva. Means had hitherto been wanting to pay 
due honors to those who had fallen in the extraordinary action under 
Leonidas, but now the care of their obsequies was Committed to the 
Amphictyonic council. Two structures of marble were reared on the 
spot of the engagement, with inscriptions which may be thus trans- 
lated: "Here 4000 men from Peloponnesus fought 3,000,000," and 
*' Stranger, tell the Lacedemonians that here we lie in obedience to 
their laws. 1 ' 

173. The Stratagems of Themistocles. — The Athenians, in re- 
taking possession of their city, found only a small part of the 
wall standing, with a few houses which had been reserved for the 
residence of the Persian officers. A jealousy which had been ex- 
cited by the honors shown him at Sparta, and a boastful display 
of his own glory, had shut out Themistocles from any public em- 
ployment in the last campaign ; when, however, the rebuilding of 
the city came into consideration, he again stepped forth upon the 
political stage, and, by his skillful management, .regained popular 
favor. 

174. The Spartans, having heard that the Athenians were inclosing 
their city with walls, sent embassadors to urge them " not to go on 
with their fortifications, but rather, as far as in them lay, to demolish 
the walls of all the other cities out of the Peloponnesus, that the ene- 
my, if he again returned, might have no strong place to fix his head- 
quarters, as recently in Thebes." It was dangerous to refuse this 
modest request, for Athens was in no situation to enter the lists with 
Sparta; but to comply with it would be to give up all idea of inde- 
pendence. Themistocles here showed his skill in intrigue, and with 
great address relieved his countrymen from their painful embarrass- 
ment. He told the Spartans they must be misinformed with regard 
to the intentions of the Athenians, and promised that embassadors 
should immediately be sent to Lacedemon, to give a satisfactory account 
of their proceedings. Having caused himself to be elected one of the 
envoys, he departed alone, leaving directions for his associates to fol- 

Quest ions— 112. Recite the article, Monuments. 173. In what condition did the Athe- 
nians find their city ? What is said of Themistocles? 174. What message did the Spartans 
send to the Athenians? Why did not the Atheuians comply? What course did Tuemia* 
tocles pursue? 



152 GREECE. [b. c.478. 

low Iiim as soon as the walls were of sufficient height to give security 
to a garrison. 

175. Having arrived at Sparta, he delayed the promised explanations 
from day to day. When the Ephori inquired his reasons, he told them 
he waited for his colleagues, and wondered they were not arrived. 
The people, meanwhile, sustained the policy of their leader. The 
work was prosecuted by night and by day ; freemen did not scruple 
to toil among slaves ; the women and children exerted all their strength 
in waiting upon the workmen, and every kind of material was used 
in carrying up the walls, even to the remains of buildings and tombs. 
Those who had occasion to pass between the two countries continually 
brought intelligence of the progress of the walls, and the king of Egina 
came express to confer upon the subject. Themistocles, nevertheless, 
constantly asserted that they were misinformed, and upbraided them 
for believing unfounded reports. u Let men of rank," said he, "be 
sent to Athens, to inquire into the affair, and I will remain a host- 
age in your hands to insure the proper conduct of the Athenian 
people." 

176. This proposition completely outwitted the Spartans. Three 
persons of eminence were sent to Athens, and Themistocles managed 
to intimate to his countrymen the propriety of detaining them till his 
own safe return. Not till the walls of Athens were advanced to the 
height that was necessary did Aristides and his other colleague join 
Themistocles in Sparta. The author of the plot then threw off the 
mask, and boldly declared that, " by the last intelligence received, he 
had the satisfaction to learn that Athens was now sufficiently fortified 
for its security." Whatever the Lacedemonians might have felt, upon 
perceiving the trick put upon them, their steady wisdom showed itself 
in the suppression of all resentment. No reproaches were vented ; on 
the contrary, a civil apology was made, and the embassadors from 
both states returned home. 

177. This important and difficult negotiation thus successfully ter- 
minated, the ambitious views of Themistocles were more fully opened. 
Amid all her sufferings from the Persian wars, Athens, through the 
superior abilities of her leaders, had been gradually assuming a rank 
far above that which she had formerly held in the Grecian states. By 
her naval power, Themistocles now thought to lead her to empire. The 
greater part of her citizens were already seamen ; it was necessary in the 

Questions. — 175. Give a further account of the stratagems of Themistocles. 176. How did 
he bring them to a successful issue ? How was the whole affair closed ? 177. What, is said 
of the growing importance of Athens? What ambition did Themistocles hare for her ? 






b. c. 478.] END OF PAUSANIAS. 153 

next place to have a port. For this purpose he gained the co-opera- 
tion of Aristides and Xanthippus, and soon fortifications more complete 
than those of Athens rose round the harbor of Piraeus, which was joined 
to the city by long walls of such height and thickness as to be capable 
of sustaining a siege for a great length of time. 

178. Though Themistocles planned and executed these great works, 
yet to carry them on required such vast sums of money, that he was 
forced to disoblige the allies by sailing round the islands and extorting 
money from them. He had likewise the misfortune to offend the 
people of Athens by recounting the many services he had rendered 
the state, and by erecting a temple near his house, inscribed " to the 
goddess of the best counsel," intimating that to him his country owed 
its present prosperity. At last the Athenians, thinking he had risen 
above the equality which a commonwealth requires, subjected him to 
the ordeal of ostracism, by which he was banished for ten years. In 
the time of his exile he took up his abode at Argos. He never re- 
turned ; for circumstances entirely beyond his control soon put a final 
close to the schemes he had "laid for the glory of Athens. 

179. End of Pausanias. — As the Persians still possessed Asia Minor, 
it was necessary for the Greeks to maintain a fleet in the Egean to pro- 
tect the islands. Pausanias, who had led the Greeks to victory in the 
battle of Platea, was sent in the capacity of commander-in-chief of 
the confederates to the island of Cyprus, which he freed from all 
fear of Persia with very little trouble. The upright Aristides and the 
brave Cimon, son of Miltiades, were admirals of the Athenian squadron, 
and far more popular than the imperious Pausanias. From Cyprus 
they sailed to the Hellespont and Propontis. The city of Byzantium* 
was then, as now, an important place. It was the depository of Per- 
sian arms, the key of Europe, and the residence of many distinguished 
individuals. After a long siege it was taken, and several persons of 
roya 1 blood made prisoners. 

180. This good fortune proved the ruin of Pausanias. The luxury 
he had affected to despise at Platea now surrounded him in the most 
attractive form ; the luster of his own glory blinded him to the dangers 
which beset the path of the ambitious ; and the thought that he soon 
must resign his command to his young relative, and sink into the in- 

* Constantinople. 

Questions.— 177. How did he commence operations? 17S. Why was he ostracised? To 
what place did he go? What further is said of him? 179. Why did the Greeks maintain 
a fleet iu tie Egean ? What success did Pausanias gain ? What third success ? ISO. What 
weakness of character did Pausanias at last exhibit? 
7* 



154 GREECE. [n. c. 475. 

significance of private life, filled him with repining. He saw his 
kinsman, the banished Demaratus, living in ease and splendor, more a 
sovereign than when king of Sparta; and he began to covet the re- 
finements of dress, the luxuries of the table and the bath, and the 
arbitrary power of a despot, for himself. As a preliminary step, he 
permitted his prisoners to escape, and then dispatched a trusty mes- 
senger to the Persian court, with proposals in which Pausanias, the 
commander of the Lacedemonians, agreed to place all Greece under 
the dominion of Persia, if Xerxes would give him his daughter in 
marriage, with those advantages of rank and fortune essential to such 
lofty alliance. 

181. His proposal was very' favorably received. No sooner did he 
learn this fact than his pride and arrogance burst all bounds. As if 
already son-in-law of the great king, he assumed the airs and manners 
of a Persian satrap. He never spoke to the officers of the allies but 
with sharpness and anger; and he inflicted punishment upon the 
soldiers in the most arbitrary manner. The sea captains and land 
officers of the Greeks, contrasting his conduct with the steady justice 
of Aristides, quitted the Spartan banners and ranged themselves under 
those of the Athenians. These things being told at Sparta, Pausanias 
was recalled and tried upon several charges. He was deposed from 
his command, but joined the army as a volunteer, that, being near Asia 
Minor, he might communicate more easily with the king. When his 
plans were nearly ripe, he returned to Sparta and began to tamper 
with the Helots, promising them liberty in the insurrection he meant 
to raise. 

182. A boy whom Pausanias had brought up was sent with a 
letter to the Persian satrap. Remembering that no former messenger 
had ever returned, he opened the letter and read, besides the parti- 
culars of the treason, an order to put the bearer to death. Alarmed 
at his danger, he carried it immediately to the Ephori. Still the 
evidence was thought insufficient. The boy was directed to go as a 
suppliant to the temple of Neptune ; while the Ephori hid themselves 
in a place where they could overhear all that might be said to him, 
Pausanias, as had been anticipated, repaired to the spot, and promised 
the boy great rewards if he would not betray him. The magistrates, 
having thus heard the particulars from his own mouth, were about to 

y apprehend him, when he escaped and took refuge in the temple of 

Questions. — 180. What proposal did he make? 181. IIow was his proposal received? 
How did this affect him ? What further account can you give of him? 182. Give a fur- 
ther and closing account of him. 



13. c. 471.1 END OF THEMISTOCLES. 155 

Minerva. As it would have been sacrilege to drag him from the 
altar, the entrance was blocked up with stones, and he was left to 
perish of cold and hunger.* 

183. End of Tiiemistooles. — After the death of Pausanias, the 
Spartans pretended that they had found papers which fully proved 
that Themistocles had been a participator in his crimes; and orders 
were in consequence sent to bring him to trial before the Amphic- 
tyons. Themistocles heard of his danger in time to escape to Corcyra, 
but finding the people there unable to shelter him, he crossed over to 
the opposite coast of Epirus. Admetus, king of Molossus, had been 
his enemy, but he determined to throw himself upon his generosity. 
Themistocles entered his palace in his absence, and, being instructed 
by the queen in the most solemn form of supplication, took the young 
prince in his arms and kneeled down before the household gods. In 
this position Admetus found him upon his return, and, moved by his 
distress, undertook to assist him. He sent an escort with him across 
the mountains to Pydna, where the fugitive embarked, in disguise, on 
a merchant-ship bound for Asia. 

184. He was landed in safety at Ephesus. But here also the most 
dreadful dangers awaited him. The Grecian officers of justice were 
in pursuit of him, and the king of Persia had offered two hundred 
talents for his apprehension. He lay concealed in the house of 
a friend some days, and was then sent off in a close carriage to 
Susa; his attendants being instructed to tell those they met, that they 
were carrying a lady from Ionia to a nobleman at court. Having with 
some difficulty obtained an audience with Artaxerxes Longimanus, 
he prostrated himself before the throne, and on the interpreter's 
inquiring who he was, replied, "The man who is now come to address 
himself to you, king, is Themistocles the Athenian, an exile, per- 
secuted by the Greeks. If you save me, you save your suppliant ; if 
you destroy me, you destroy the enemy of Greece." 

185. Artaxerxes received him with the greatest joy, assured him 
of his protection, and prayed to Arimanius that his enemies might 
always be so infatuated as to banish their ablest men : nay, so great 
a treasure did he consider his distinguished guest, that he exclaimed 
three times in his sleep, "I have got Themistocles the Athenian." 

* His aged mother placed the first stone at the door of the temple. 

Questions. — 1S3. In what manner was Themistocles involved in his disgrace? To what 
plaee did he first flee ? Then where? How did he get Admetus to help him? 184. Give 
an account of his flight to Susa. Of his interview with Artaxerxes Longimanus. 1S5. How 
was he received? What exclamation is reported of Artaxerxes? 



156 GREECE. [b. c. 485. 

The honors that were paid the exile were far superior to those that 
other strangers received. The king took him out to hunt, admitted 
him familiarly to the palace, introduced him to his mother, and per- 
mitted him to be instructed in the doctrines of the magi. He gave 
him three cities in Asia Minor for his support, and paid to him the 
two hundred talents offered for his head. 

186. But when Athens assisted Egypt to revolt, and Cimon rode 
triumphant over the seas, the king of Persia called upon Themis- 
tocles to perform the many promises he had made, and assist in 
humbling the power of Greece. Whether his noble heart broke in 
the conflict between love for his country and gratitude to his royal 
benefactor ; or whether, despairing of being able to effect his pur- 
pose, he put an end to his life by poison, cannot now be determined. 
It is certain, however, that he never bore arms against his beloved 
Athens ; but, dying in a foreign land, gave orders that his bones should 
be secretly conveyed to Attica; and long after, a tomb within the 
harbor of Pirseus, on the seaside, was pointed out as the humble 
grave of the illustrious Themistocles. 

187. End of Aeistides. — Aristides, meantime, continued to deserve 
and receive the favor of his country and her dependents. He settled 
the articles of alliance between Athens and the other states; he ap- 
portioned the sum to be paid yearly for the current expenses of the 
commonwealth ; he took charge of the public treasury ; and in all 
these offices acquitted himself with such integrity and justice, that 
envy itself could find nothing against him. While Cimon and Xan- 
thippus were busy in procuring the banishment of Themistocles, 
Aristides alone did nothing against him; for as he had never envied 
his rival's prosperity, he did not now rejoice in his misfortunes. We 
are not acquainted with the time and manner of his death, but 
his monument was erected at the public expense; and he left his 
family so poor that his daughters were portioned from the city 
treasury. 

188. Cimon. — When Artaxerxes, by the death of his father, suc- 
ceeded to the Persian throne, he was so much engaged in settling 
affairs at home, that he had little leisure for carrying on the war with 
Greece. However, to preserve the Ionian colonies, he ordered a 

Questions.— 185. What treatment did Themistocles afterward receive at the hands of the 
king? 186. What closing account can you give of Themistocles? Where did he die? 
Ans. At Magnesia, a town on the Meander river, a little west of Sardis. Trace the courso 
of Themistocles from his residence in Argos to the place of his death. 187. What can you 
3tate of the end of Aristides? 188. What colonies did Artaxerxes undertake to preserve? 
In what way ? 



b. c. 46C] AR1STIDES-CIM0N. 157 

numerous fleet to move round the river Eurymedon, and sent out a 
land army to act in conjunction upon its banks. Meanwhile, Cimon, 
son of Miltiades, under the judicious management of Aristides, 
had become one of the leading men in the Athenian state. The 
treason of Pausanias and the banishment of Themistocles had made 
him the commander-in-chief of the Grecian fleet, which was anchored 
at Cnidus. 

189. As soon as intelligence of the movements in Pamphylia was 
conveyed to him, he embarked some of his best troops, and sailed for 
the mouth of the river. The Persians, counting upon their superior 
numbers, advanced boldly to meet him. A fierce engagement ensued, 
in which the Persians were defeated ; many of their ships were sunk, 
and about three hundred fell into the hands of the victors. The 
number of prisoners amounted to 20,000 ; and this circumstance, 
together with the brief duration of the contest, suggested to the 
active mind of Cimon a stratagem, which made the victory com- 
plete. 

190. Having dressed his best soldiers in the robes of the captives, 
he embarked with them in the Persian galleys, and sailed up the 
Eurymedon to the place where the land army awaited the arrival of 
their friends. The unsuspecting Persians hailed their return, and 
went out to meet them with every demonstration of joy. They were 
fatally undeceived when their supposed brethren, brandishing the 
Grecian spear and battle-ax, fell upon them with resistless fury. 
Unarmed and surprised, they made but a feeble resistance. A few 
of them escaped in the darkness, but most of them were taken 
prisoners; so that Cimon acquired the singular glory of gaining two 
victories and erecting two trophies in one day. 

191. By this great success the Persian power was so broken that 
offensive operations were totally intermitted ; and it became the boast 
of the Greeks that no armed ship of Persia was to be seen west of the 
coast of Pamphylia ; and that no Persian troops dared show them- 
selves within a day's journey of the Grecian seas. The plunder of 
the camp amounted to an immense sum, one-tenth of which was 
devoted to Apollo. A large portion fell to the share of Cimon. This 
money he employed in beautifying Athens. In his youth he had 

Questions.— 1S8. How did Cimon get to be commander of the Grecian fleet? 1S9. To 
what river did he sail ? Where is that river ? Ans. In Pisidia. (See fig. 9 on map No. 3.) 
Give an account of the naval engagement. 190. Also of Cimon's second victory. What 
glory did he thus acquire ? 191. How did the success of the Greeks affect the Persians? 
What is said of the plunder which the Greeks took? What change took place in the man- 
ners of Cimon ? Where were Cnidus, Pamphylia, and Eurymedon ? (Map No. 2.) 



] 58 GREECE. [b. c. 464. 

affected a roughness of manners, and a contempt for the refinement 
of life ; but in his riper years he became a model of politeness. 

192. He patronized every liberal art, and studied to procure ele- 
gant as well as useful gratifications for the people. By his munifi- 
cence were raised those lofty porticos, under whose magnificent 
shelter the Athenians delighted to assemble and pass their time in 
conversation. In a wood, before rude and without water, he formed 
commodious and elegant walks, whose sides were adorned with 
running fountains ; and this became the widely celebrated grove of 
Academia* He planted the agora t of Athens with the oriental 
plane; and, ages after, these beautiful trees sheltered the buyers and 
sellers who came thither to grow rich by traffic. 

193. Not satisfied with these public benefactions, he threw down 
the fences of his own gardens and orchards, that all might eat freely 
of the fruit ; a table was spread at his house for the poorer citizens ; 
and every day he invited from the agora some indigent persons to a 
sumptuous repast. He was commonly attended by a large retinue, 
handsomely clothed ; and if he met an elderly citizen ill clad, he 
directed one of his followers to change cloaks with him. He was 
equally attentive to lending and giving money ; and such was the 
estimation in which he was held, that he was considered as brave as 
Miltiades, as wise as Themistocles, and second to none but Aristides 
in justice. 

194. b. o. 464. — The Earthquake and its Consequences. — The 
Lacedemonians had looked on with envious eyes while Athens, under 
these able statesmen and skillful generals, was acquiring riches and 
dominion; but just as they were upon the point of adopting measures 
to humble her pride, their attention was recalled to personal affairs. 
One day, while the sons of the principal families were exercising in the 
gymnasium, a terrible earthquake laid waste all Laconia. The building 
in which the youth were assembled fell, burying them in its ruins; the 
shocks were repeated; multitudes were crushed by the falling houses; 
the earth opened in several places ; vast fragments tumbled down the 
sides of Mt. Taygetus ; and, in the end, only five houses were left 
standing in Sparta. The Helots in the fields suffered less than the 
citizens; and, witnessing the terror and confusion of their masters, 

* See map of Athens, page 150. t Market-place. 



Questions. — 192. What did he do for the comfort and gratification of the Athenians? 
193. What else did he do? In what estimation was he held? 194. What had the Lace- 
demonians meditated with reference to the Athenians ? Give an account of the earthquake. 
What then did the Helots determine upon? 



B. c. 464.] CIMON. 159 

rapidly assembled to complete the work of destruction, and regain 
their liberty. 

195. Archidamus, the king, perceiving the imminent danger of 
Sparta, ordered the trumpets to sound to arms, upon which the flying 
multitudes instinctively rallied around their respective standards. The 
Helots, awed by the appearance of a regular army, dispersed around 
the country, and incited their brethren to revolt. The greater part 
of these miserable men were descendants of those Messenians who had 
fought so bravely for liberty ages before. They remembered the 
heroism of their ancestors ; they recalled the exploits of Aristomenes ; 
and, determined to strike once more for freedom, they seized and 
fortified Ithome, the spot rendered sacred by the blood of their 
fathers. They outnumbered the Spartans by many thousands, and 
they had become so familiar with the art of war, in attending upon 
their masters, that their revolt seemed more formidable to Sparta 
than the hosts of Persia. 

196. Nor was this the worst feature in this distressing calamity. 
The Lacedemonians were completely helpless in any kind of business. 
Deprived of their slaves, they were in danger of starving ; agriculture 
stopped ; the mechanic arts ceased. The Spartans were thus reduced 
to the mortifying necessity of applying to their allies for succor. 
There was found in Athens a strong disposition to refuse the required 
aid ; but Cimon, who had always been a favorite with the aristocratic 
powers of Greece, silenced all opposition ; and a considerable body 
of forces under his command marched into the Peloponnesus. This 
measure, though intended to keep the peace between the rival states, 
had a contrary effect. 

197. It was in the leisure and inactivity of the siege of Ithome that 
those heart-burnings arose, which first occasioned an avowed aversion 
between the Lacedemonians and Athenians, and led, not immediately, 
but consequently, to the fatal Peloponnesian war. Here Athenian 
vanity had full opportunity for display, and Spartan pride full leisure 

.to take offense. The Spartans remembered that these Athenians were 
Ionians, whom the Dorians considered an alien race : suspicion arose 
that they might join the enemy, and upon some trifling pretext they 
were civilly dismissed. 

198. The Athenians returned home so exasperated by the treat- 



Questions.— 195. Give an account of the preparation made by the Helots. 19G. What 
condition of things soon followed? What aid went to the Spartans? 197. What was the 
remote cause of the Peloponnesian war? What did the Spartans remember? Why wera 
the Athenians sent home ? 



100 



GREECE 



[b. g. 461. 



AlcmaBOD. 



Megacles. 



ment they had received, that a decree was immediately passed, 
renouncing the confederacy of Lacedemon. Cimon's popularity had 
been for some time on the decline ; not that he was less brave, or less 
generous, than formerly; but that the Alcmceonidce were again 
struggling for power, and that the present commotion offered a favor- 
able opportunity to crush him. He had always professed himself an 
admirer of the Spartan institutions; and now, insulted as he had 
been, he did not join in the hue and cry against Lacedemon. All 
these circumstances were cited against him ; and when the public 
mind was sufficiently aroused, the ostracism was called for, and he 
was banished. 

199. Xanthippus, who 
conducted the accusation 
against Miltiades, was mar- 
ried to Agariste, niece of 
that Clisthenes who gained 
so much favor by rebuild- 
ing the temple at Delphi, 
and procuring the banish- 
ment of the Pisistratidse. 
Their son, Pericles, was 
now the head of the Alc- 
masonidas, and the rival of Cimon. He had been the pupil of Anaxa- 
goras, and attracted public notice soon after the banishment of 
Themistocles. He had an agreeable person* and popular manners ; 
and in the art of speaking so far surpassed other orators, that he 
received the surname of Olympius ; for they said that in his harangues 
he thundered and lightened. 

200. As he had never been an archon, he could not sit in the court 
of Areopagus ; he therefore entered into a scheme with the leading 
men to contract the powers of this august court ; a measure which 
gratified the people, and added not a little to his popularity. Still 
further to strengthen his power, he provided the most elegant amuse- 
ments for the multitude ; the dramas of Eschylus, Sophocles, and 
Euripides, and the satires of the comic poets, were exhibited in the 
magnificent theaters ; the religious festivals were celebrated with new 

* His head was so disproportionately long that he was styled the " Onion-headed, 11 from 
its similarity to the sea-onion. 



Hippocrates. 
Agariste. 

Alcibiades. 




Clisthenes. 



Xanthippus. 



Pericles. 



Questions.— 198. What decree did the Athenians pass? Why was Cimon banished? 
199. Who was Pericles? Can you describe him? 200. What efforts did he make to gain 
the applause of the people ? 



B. c. 460.] PERICLES. 161 

splendor ; and every thing was done to keep the people pleased with 
the change of administration. 

201. But to maintain these increased expenses, new supplies were 
necessary. The common treasury, located at the sacred island of 
Delos, for the support of the navy, was moved to Athens, and the 
assessment which Aristides had apportioned to the allies was con- 
verted into a direct and burdensome tax. To obviate the unpleasant 
feelings which these measures were calculated to excite, the people 
were employed in the fleet which watched the Persian and Phenician 
navies. In the confusion which followed the death of Xerxes, Inarus 
aroused the greater part of Egypt to rebellion. Finding, in the war 
that followed, the necessity of engaging a maritime power in his 
interest, Inarus sent proposals of alliance to Athens. Pericles hoped 
that in this expedition a revenue of wealth and fame would accrue to 
his native city, equal to that gained by Cimon on the coast of Asia 
Minor; and the alliance with Inarus was accordingly formed. 

202. Disasters in Egypt. — The fleet sailed from Cyprus to Egypt, 
where Grecian valor and Grecian discipline at first overbore all opposi- 
tion ; but a turn in the tide of Athenian fortunes was at hand. Mega- 
bysus, an able Persian general, succeeded in shutting up his foes on an 
island in the Nile, where he cut off their supplies, and reduced them 
to the brink of destruction. Inarus was betrayed to the Persians, and 
most of the Greeks perished. The few that remained were carried 
prisoners to Persia. Nor was this all. Fifty trireme galleys going to 
Egypt entered the mouth of the Nile, ignorant of what had happened. 
The Phenician fleet attacked them in the river, while the Persian army 
assisted from the shore; a few ships forced their way to sea, and 
escaped ; but the greater part were destroyed or taken. Such was the 
conclusion of the Athenian enterprise against Egypt, after it had been 
carried on six years. 

203. Fighting among Friends. — Meanwhile, the Athenians had not 
been idle at home. They had taken part with Megara against Corinth, 
subdued Egina, which Pericles styled "the eye-sore of the Piraeus," 
and made several campaigns in Beotia. The Spartans, having carried 
on the siege of Ithome ten years, finally granted the rebels liberty to 
depart unharmed, with their wives and children, goods and chattels. 
The Athenian fleet took them on board, sailed with them into the 

Questions.— 201. How were means to meet, the increased expenses raised ? Who was 
Inarus? What proposition did he make ? Why did Pericles form the alliance? 202. To 
what place did the fleet sail ? What is said of its first successes? Who was Megabysus? 
What did he succeed in doin»? Give a further account of the Athenian enterprise against 
Egypt. 203. What, meanwhile, had the Athenians done at home ? 



1G2 GREECE. [b. c. 449. 

Corinthian gulf, and settled them in Naupactus, a maritime town of 
Locris. There, retaking the name of Messenians, they formed them- 
selves into a free republic, and were once more numbered among the 
Grecian people. 

204. All parties were now tired of a war in which they gained 
nothing, and lost much. The Athenians especially, fearing the united 
vengeance of Sparta and Corinth, were particularly desirous of peace; 
and Pericles, as a preparatory step, exerted himself to procure the 
recall of Cimon. This banished noble was at that time living on his 
lordship in Chersonesus; but he did not refuse the call of his factious 
countrymen. Through his influence a truce was obtained for five 
years, which time was actively employed by Pericles in completing the 
long wall begun by Themistocles. 

205. Expedition to Cypkus, and Death of Cimon, b. c. 449. — But 
such had become the state of things at home, that even Cimon con- 
curred in the purpose of turning the spirit of enterprise once more 
toward foreign conquest, in the hope of scattering the elements of 
faction, which were already brooding war in Greece. A fleet of two 
hundred galleys was equipped for an expedition against Cyprus, of 
which Cimon took the command. He reached the place of his desti- 
nation in safety, but received a wound in the siege of Citium, of 
which he died. His spirit seemed still to hover over the fleet ; for 
the galleys which were conveying his remains to Attica, encoun- 
tered the Phenician fleet, and gained a great victory. His bones 
were interred in Attica, and a magnificent monument erected to his 
memory. 

206. After the death of Cimon, the nobility, perceiving that Pericles 
possessed far too great authority, set up Thucydides* as his opponent; 

* Thucydides was descended in the female line from Miltiades. He was born in Attica, 
k. c. 471. The first circumstance related by his biographers, is an account of his attending 
the Olympic games with his father, when about fifteen years of age. Herodotus at that 
time recited his history, and the young Thucydides was so much affected with the work, 
and the applause it received, that he shed tears. On observing this, Herodotus exclaimed 
to his father, " Tour son burns with ardor for learning." Of his early manhood we have no 
account, but he doubtless served the usual time in the militia; for after the death of Cimon 
he was set up as the opponent of Pericles. In his 47th year, he was appointed to the com- 
mand of the Athenian fleet off the coast of Thrace, but being too late by half a day to relieve 
Amphipolis, then besieged by the Spartans, he was banished. He continued an exile twenty 
years, during which he wrote the history of the Peloponnesian war, in eight books. He 
returned tc his native state the year after Athens was taken by Lysander, and died there. 

Questions. — 203. What became of the Messenians? 204. Why did the Athenians desire 
peace? What preparatory step was taken? What course did Cimon pursue <ifter his 
recall? 205. What object had he in recommending foreign conquest? What expedition 
did he command? In what engagement did he perish? What victory followed? 206. 
Who wao Thucydides? Give his history contained in the note. 



B.C. 461.] PERICLES. 163 

and such was the effect of the eloquence of these two rival states- 
men that the city was quite broken in two, one part being called the 
nobility, the other the people. Pericles addressed himself particularly 
to please the people, and his success was so great that Thucydides 
said, " When I wrestle with Pericles, if I throw him ever so decidedly, 
he can persuade the spectators that he threw me." Pericles also 
gained a decree for sending out sixty galleys every year, manned 
with citizens, who not only improved themselves in maritime skill, 
but were paid for their time ; and when they returned he con- 
trived all kinds of shows, games, plays, and processions, to amuse 
them. In addition to this, carpenters, masons, brasiers, goldsmiths, 
painters, turners, and artificers of every kind, were employed 
upon those splendid buildings which were erected by his recommen- 
dation. 

207. The Odeum, designed for musical performances and the rehear- 
sal of new tragedies, was built almost entirely of the masts of Persian 
vessels, and was so constructed as to imitate the form of Xerxes's tent. 
The Parthenon, or temple of Minerva, situated on the summit of the 
Acropolis, in beauty and grandeur surpassed all other buildings of the 
kind. In this edifice was the statue of the goddess sculptured in ivory. 
It was thirty-nine feet high, and forty talents of gold were employed 
in ornamenting it. The orators of Thucydides's party raised a clamor 
against Pericles, insisting that he had brought the greatest disgrace 
upon Athens by removing the public treasures from Delos, and taking 
them into his own custody. The works were notwithstanding carried 
steadily forward, and finished in an incredibly short time, with an 
elegance combining the freshness of youth and the sublimity of 
antiquity. 

208. b. o. 445. — Grandmother Corinth, Mother Corcyra, and 
Little Epidamnus. — Ambition, pride, and jealousy, had strown 
Greece with combustible materials ; and from a fatal spark, which 
kindled a flame in the corner of the country, the blaze spread finally 
over the whole ; insomuch that the remainder of its history is but a 
tale of domestic calamity and suffering. In very early times, the 
republic of Corinth established a colony upon the island of Corcyra. 
The colony flourished exceedingly; her people were rich and power- 
ful, and her fleet ranked next to that of Athens. She also sent out 
colonies, one of which settled in Epidamnus. Epidamaus likewise 

Questions. — 206. What amusements procured popularity for Pericles? 207. What re- 
markable buildings were erected? (Jive a description of the Odeum. Of the Parthenon. 
2(>S. What is said of the remaining history of Greece? The early history of Corcyra? 
Of Epidamnus? 



164: GREECE. [b. c. 445. 

increased in goods and pride, and threw off all allegiance to the parent 
state. The barbarous tribes in the neighborhood of Epidamnus, not 
long after, invaded her territories, and reduced her to the brink of 
destruction. 

209. In this state of distress, she applied to Corcyra for help ; but 
the mother, thinking the present troubles only a salutary correction of 
her child, turned a deaf ear to her petitions. The Epidamnians then 
turned their eyes to grandmother Corinth, and, being encouraged by 
the oracle, dispatched a solemn embassy thither, acknowledging that 
city as their metropolis, and imploring assistance. The Corinthians 
readily listened to the appeal, and, sending out a fleet, took military 
possession of the colony. Corcyra had thus her mother enraged on 
one side, and her daughter incensed on the other; she, however, 
determined to carry out her intentions, and steadfastly resist all inter- 
ference in her government. 

210. The Corinthians, alarmed by the preparations Corcyra was 
making for war, called on the allies for aid ; and Corcyra, taking alarm 
also at the number of confederates who responded to the call, sent to 
make alliance with Athens. This was a delicate point for the Athe- 
nians to decide. If they assisted Corcyra, they in effect declared war 
against Corinth ; if, on the contrary, they permitted her to be over- 
come, the Peloponnesians would be strengthened by the fall of the 
greatest naval power of Greece. After much hesitation, they dis- 
patched a fleet of thirty galleys to defend the Corcyreans. The 
war was, however, productive of little gain or glory to either side, 
and might have passed unnoticed but for its political effect, in leav- 
ing upon the mind of Corinth such a sense of the supremacy of 
Athens as led her to enlist on the side of Sparta in the Peloponnesian 
war. 

211. The ostracism being called for about this time, Thucydides was 
banished, and thus Pericles became sole master of Athens and all its 
dependencies. The revenue, the army, the navy, the friendship of 
kings, and the alliance of princes, were all at his command. But, 
though possessed of such unlimited power, he kept the public good in 
his eye, and pursued the straight path of honor. According to the 
representation of Thucydides, his rival, he was a man of popularity 

Question*. — 209. Where was Corcyra? (See map No. 2.) What is it called now? Ann. 
Corfu. What is said of the colony of Corcyra? 210. What produced alarm among the 
Corinthians? What aid did they consequently invoke? Why was Corcyra alarmed? What 
alliance was sought? State the delicate points. What assistance was sent to Corcyra? 
Woat effect had the Corcyrean war upon Athens, politically ? 211. How did Pericles be- 
come master of Athens and its dependencies? What was his character? 






B. c. 415.] PERICLES. 105 

and unblemished reputation ;* money could not bribe him, and he wag 
so much above the desire of it, that, though intrusted with so many 
offices, he added not one drachma to his personal estate. 

212. Potidnaa, a Corinthian colony on the coast of Macedonia, had 
been brought under the dominion of Athens. In this time of commo- 
tion, the Potidaeans received a body of troops from Corinth, and 
declared themselves free! The Athenians immediately ordered 
their fleet around that way, and blocked up Potidaea by sea and land. 
The Corinthians, therefore, sent deputies to Sparta, to complain that 
in so doing they had broken the truce, t and the Spartans readily in- 
voked a general assembly of the states, to listen to complaints against 
Athens. When the deputies had arrived, proclamation was made, 
giving permission for those to speak who had any thing to advance. 
The Eginetans first occupied the attention of the meeting, with a com- 
plaint of the destruction of their fleet by Pericles, and of the depend- 
ency in which they were held ; and the Megarensians urged, that, 
contrary to the existing treaty, they were prohibited all intercourse 
with Attica. 

213. The Corinthians then opened their grievances in the following 
form : " Often have we warned you, O Lacedemonians, of the wrongs 
which the Athenians were preparing for us; but not till we had 
already suffered, and hostilities were commenced, would you summon 
this assembly of our confederacy, in which we have, perhaps, more 
cause than others to come forward, injured as we have been by the 
Athenians, and neglected by you. Not that we alone are inte- 
rested; all Greece is concerned; many states being already reduced 

* He was, it is true, greatly influenced by the courtesan Aspasia; but she owed her 
power to her great abilities, rather than to her personal charms. At a time when the educa- 
tion of Grecian females was little superior to that of slaves, when their minds were unin- 
formed, and their manners unpolished, Aspasia, the Milesian, appeared in Athens. She was 
endowed with accomplishments rare even among men; and by the combined attractions of 
her beauty, manners, and conversation, completely won the affection and esteem of Pericles, 
6o that he put away his wife, and bound himself to her by the most intimate relation which 
the laws permitted him to contract with a foreign woman. Nor was he alone sensible of 
her charms. Her private circles were frequented by the most enlightened and accomplished 
men of the State, who often brought their wives to be instructed by her conversation. 
Socrates said he learned eloquence of her; and Plato did not hesitate to assert, that the 
funeral oration pronounced by Pericles, one of the most eloquent compositions extant, was 
written by the gifted Milesian. 

t A truce for thirty years had been concluded between Sparta and Athens. 

Questions.— 212. Where was Potidsea? (See map No. 2.) Why did the Athenians besiege 
Potidsea? By whom was a general assembly of the states called ? Why was it called? Of 
what did the Eginetans complain? The Megarensians ? 213. Who were the third to cora« 
I>'ain ? With what did they open their grievances? 






160 GREECE. [b.c. 445. 

to subjection, and others notoriously threatened. Corcyra, capable 
of furnishing a fleet superior to that of any republic in our con- 
federacy, is already taken from us, and Potidaea, our most im- 
portant post for carrying on commerce in Thrace, is at this time 
besieged. These injuries are in a great measure to be imputed 
to you. 

214. u After the Persian war, you permitted the Athenians to fortify 
their city; then to build their long walls; and still you have continued 
to look on (though boasting to be vindicators of the freedom of 
Greece), while they have deprived of freedom not only their own, but 
our confederates. Is this a time to inquire whether we have been 
injured? No; rather, how we shall repel the injury. The Persians, 
we know, came from the farthest parts of the earth before you had 
made any adequate preparations for defense; and now you are equally 
remiss against the Athenians, in your own neighborhood. Let this, 
then, be the term of your dilatoriness ; give at length that assistance 
to your allies which you owe them, and relieve the Potidaeans. This 
can be done only by an invasion of Attica. Consult then your own 
interest, and do not diminish that supremacy in Peloponnesus which 
your fathers transmitted to you." 

215. The Corinthians ceased ; and when all others had expressed 
their opinions, they were requested to withdraw, that the Spartans, 
who claimed the dignified station of sovereign arbiters, might decide 
upon the question. War was resolved upon; but to gain time, and 
sow the seeds of dissension in Athens, an embassy was sent thither, 
'•^quiring that all execrable* persons should be banished, lest some 
general calamity should fall upon Greece. 

216. The Embassies. — The embassadors were received at Athens, 
and discharged their commission with all due gravity; but Pericles, 
against whom this blow was aimed, as a descendant of that Megacles 
who murdered the followers of Cylon, recollected that the principal 
families of Sparta had also been guilty of sacrilege, in the case of 
Pausanias, and in the murder of some Helots who had been dragged 
from the sanctuary of Neptune. The great earthquake had been attri- 
buted to this last act of impiety. Pericles, therefore, proposed that 
the Lacedemonians should set the first example of regard for the wel- 

* Those guilt}' of sacrilege. 

Question. — 214. What did they charge upon the Lacedemonians? With what advice did 
they close? 215. What then was resolved upon? Why was an embassy sent to Athens? 
Wbat was the embassy instructed to require? 216. What answer was given to the em 
b,.s?y? 



B.C. 431.] PERICLES. }fi7 

fare of Greece, by banishing their own sacrilegious citizens. With this 
answer the deputies departed. 

217. A second embassy arrived soon after, with very different 
instructions. These envoys urged that the siege of Potidoea ought to 
be raised, Egina restored to independence, and the decree against 
Megara revoked. The two first propositions were scarcely noticed ; 
upon t^e third, the Athenians condescended to explain, that the Mega- 
rensians had been guilty of plowing up a spot of ground consecrated 
to the Eleusinian goddess, and of receiving runawaj Athenian slaves. 
With this answer, the second embassy returned to Sparta ; and soon 
after came a third, men of eminence and influence, who said nothing 
of sacrilege, Potidsea, Egina, or Megara, but simply put forward the 
modest requisition, " That all the Grecian states held in subjection by 
Athens should be restored to independency. 1 ' 

218. An assembly was convened to determine on a final answer. 
Many spoke in favor of peace on these conditions, and many urged 
the necessity of war. Finally, Pericles ascended the bema. He showed 
that what the Lacedemonians wished was not the independence of 
Megara or Egina, but the submission of Athens ; that they were deter- 
mined to assert their own supremacy ; and if one point were granted, 
another would immediately be put forward, till Athens must finally 
fight or be shorn of all her glory, allies and dependencies. He drew 
a lively picture of the progress and results of the coming war, and 
closed by recommending a compliance with the demands of Sparta, as 
soon as she would herself set the example, by giving liberty to her 
allies. This answer was conveyed to the embassadors nearly in the 
words of Pericles; and all hopes of peace being thus destroyed, both 
sides began vigorously to prepare for war. 

219. b. c. 431. — The Pkloponnesian War.— -The spark which had 
fallen in Corcyra, and been kindled into a flame in Potidcea, now blazed 
forth in Beotia. The Thebans had longed to subject the little city of 
Platea, but feared the power of Athens, who protected it. As soon, 
therefore, as war was considered certain, they seized upon this place, 
and succeeded at first in getting possession of it. "At this time," 
says Thucydides (who, having expiated his ."-rime of being a great 
man by ten years' banishment, had returned to the fleet), " Greece 
abounded with youth, who, filled with admiration for the wonders 
wrought by their fathers in the Persian wars, were anxious to win 

Questions. — 217. What was urged by the second embassy? What, answer was given to 
the envoys? What was required by the third embassy? 218. What course did Athens 
then take? What were the arguments of Pericles? What was the result? 219. What 
befell the city of Platea? What is stated as having been said by Thucydides?. „ 



168 GREECE. [b. c. 431. 

for themselves a place in the records of fame." Oracular responses 
were also reported ; many prodigies were seen ; an earthquake shook 
the sacred island of Delos ; and Greece abounded with portents, 
which each party interpreted for themselves and against their ene- 
mies. 

220. The two confederacies, now upon the point of engaging in 
long and deadly strife, were very differently composed ; but the forces 
yf Greece were very equally divided between them. Sparta had for 
allies 4,* 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, and a part of 2 and 10 ; 20 had 
been destroyed, and 18 remained neuter. Athens had 3, 1, a part of 
10, and the little settlement of Naupactus; but most of the islands in 
the Ionian sea had been brought into her interest by Corcyra ; her 
fleet commanded the Egean, and brought efficient aid from the colo- 
nies of Asia Minor. Athens was the head of the Ionic race ; Sparta 
of the Doric. Athens was regarded as a democracy, and the advocate 
of the rights of the people ; Sparta, as an aristocracy, and a defender 
of the privileges claimed by the nobility. Athens demanded tribute 
from her allies, while Sparta was contented with supremacy alone. 
In every island, therefore, which owned the dominion of Athens, a 
strong party was found favorable to the success of Sparta. 

221. First Invasion of Attica. — Archidamus, the good old Spartan 
king, the friend of Pericles, was made commander-in-chief of the 
Peloponnesian forces. They marched 60,000 strong up toward the 
Corinthian isthmus ; but as their leader was opposed to the war, and 
tried every measure to intimidate the Athenians before taking any 
decisive step, an interval occurred, which was well employed by the 
Athenians in making preparations against the invaders. Pericles, 
foreseeing from the beginning the consequences of his course, had not 
been remiss in providing for them. Knowing the superior force of 
the Spartans by land, he persuaded the Athenians not to venture a 
battle ; but to lay waste their fields and retire into their city, depend- 
ing upon their fleet for supplies. 

222. He told them that for these there were abundant resources it. 
the commonwealth. The annual tribute amounted to $600,000 : there 
were in the treasury $60,000,000, and the uncoined gold and silver 



* Let the pupil name them from the Map. 



Question*.— 219. What is said of the portents? 220. Who were the allies of Sparta? 
(See map No. 2.) Who of Athens? What political feature distinguished Athens from 
Sparta? 221. Who was constituted commander-in-chief of the Peloponnesian forces? To 
what course did Pericles persuade the Athenians? Why did he do so? 222. What repre- 
sentations did he make ? 



b. c. 431.] PERICLES. 169 

which might be employed was not less than $500,000 more. There 
was besides one tori's weight of pure gold upon the statue of Minerva, 
which could be taken off without injury, and replaced when deemed 
expedient. Sheltered by the walls of their city, they would be able 
to look on in security while the Peloponnesians ravaged their country ; 
and embarking on board their fleet, they might take ample vengeance 
by ravaging the coast of the Peloponnesus. 

223. But, though these representations encouraged the people to 
trust for the final result, yet they were far from being contented. It 
was very inconvenient for the free denizens of the mountainous regions 
to be cooped up in a space where no one could move without intrud- 
ing upon his neighbor ; the inhabitants of the plains were not pleased 
with the prospect of seeing the elegant houses they had built burned 
to the ground, and the gardens and vineyards they had planted laid 
waste by the hand of the destroyer. They lingered wistfully about 
their homes, and it was not till the confederates had actually laid siege 
to a frontier town that they sought refuge within the city. 

224. Archidamus reached Attica with his army just as the corn 
began to ripen, and, laying waste the whole country in his path, used 
every effort to provoke his enemies to battle. Pericles, notwithstand- 
ing, remained firm; he would call no assembly of the people; nor 
would he quit the city when the fleet went to ravage the Pelopon- 
nesus, lest some misfortune should happen in his absence. However, 
when the enemy retired he led out all the citizens to plunder Megara, 
and having by the fleet expelled the Eginetans from their island, he 
settled an Athenian colony there. 

225. The Funeral Ceremonies.— When winter set in, and hostilities 
were suspended, Pericles employed his fertile genius in devising means 
to animate the people, and to convert even their calamities into an 
occasion of triumph. The funeral rites of those who had fallen in 
defense of their country were publicly solemnized. Three days 
before the burial, the bones of the bodies previously burned were 
collected and laid in state under an ample awning. There their rela- 
tives visited them, and strewed them with evergreens and spices, as 
affection or superstition dictated. On the appointed day, the bones 
were laid in ten chests of Cyprus wood, and conveyed on carriages to 
a public tomb in the most beautiful suburb of the city, the people fol- 
lowing in a lo ng, mournful procession, and the female relations filling 

Questions.— 223. How did the representations affect the people ? Why were the denizens 
of the mountains dissatisfied? Why, the inhabitants of the plains? 224. What did Archi- 
damus effect? What course did Pericles pursue ? 225. Describe the funeral obsequies. 



170 GREECE. [b. c. 430 

the air with lamentations. After the ceremony of entombing was 
over, Pericles passed through the crowd to a lofty stand prepared for 
the purpose, and delivered an oration, which, as transcribed by Thu- 
cydides, is considered the most remarkable of all ancient compositions, 
and a finished model of beautiful conceptions, chastened and elevated 
by a noble severity. 

226. Second Invasion of Attioa. — Tiie Plague. — The next spring 
the confederate army met again upon the isthmus, to decide the fate 
of Athens. In this second invasion, Archidamus laid aside the for- 
bearance he had practiced the year before, and left scarce a corner of 
the land unravaged. But a greater calamity than their offended 
brethren could inflict, now fell upon the Athenians. A dreadful 
plague, which, commencing in Ethiopia, had passed through Lybia 
and crossed the Mediterranean, burst at once upon Athens. Persons 
apparently in perfect health were seized with extreme heat in the 
head and redness of the eyes. The tongue and throat then assumed a 
bloody appearance, a violent cough came on, with hiccoughs and 
spasms ; inflammation ensued, and the body was rapidly covered with 
loathsome ulcers. As it began in the head, it proceeded through all 
parts of the body, and finally fixed itself in the extremities ; so that 
those who survived lost their hands, or feet, or eyes. The patients 
were afflicted with intolerable thirst; many dragged themselves to 
the fountains and there fell down dead, with none to bury them. 

227. It was midsummer, and not only every house was fully occu- 
pied, but many families were crowded together in stifling huts, where 
they died in heaps. The very temples were filled with dead bodies, 
and every part of the city exhibited a dreadful scene of mortality and 
mourning. Beasts of prey, though perishing with hunger, refused to 
touch the carcasses of those who died of it ; and birds of ill-omen flew 
about, and by their dismal croakings excited fearful forebodings. The 
Peloponnesian army had wasted the vale of Attica, and were rapidly 
proceeding toward the seacoast, when, becoming alarmed by accounts 
of the plague, they hastened homeward, after occupying the country 
forty days. 

228. Misfortunes of Pericles. — The firm mind of Pericles was not 
to be depressed by the sword without, nor by the pestilence within, 
nor even by the irritation and despair of the Athenians, who accused 
him of being the author of their calamities, by drawing such rnulti- 

Quextions. — 225. What afterward took place ? 226, 227. What is snid of the 6econd inva- 
sion by Archidamus? Give an account of the Plague. 22S, 229. Relate the story of the 
.uisfortuuos of Pericles. 






B. C 429.J PERICLES. \* { 

tudes into the city as to poison the very air. In the anguish of their 
feelings, they forgot all he had done and suffered for them ; and by a 
public decree deposed him from his military command, and fined him 
an immense sum. Nor was this his only misfortune. His advisers 
fell victims to the pestilence, and the greater part of his family friends 
died of the same dreadful disease. Still he neither wept nor performed 
any funeral rites, nor was he seen at the grave of any of his relatives 
until the death of Paralus, his last legitimate son. 

229. He attempted, indeed, then to keep up his usual calm behavior 
and serenity of mind, but in putting the garland upon the head of the 
deceased his firmness forsook him; he broke out into loud lamenta- 
tions, and shed a torrent of tears. Athens made trial, in the course of 
a year, of the rest of her generals and orators, and finding none capa- 
ble of extricating her from the difficulties in which she was involved, 
once more invited Pericles to take again the direction of affairs. He 
had shut himself up at home to indulge his sorrow, and it was with 
difficulty that Alcibiades and his other friends persuaded him to re- 
assume the reins of government. During the following winter, the 
Potidceans, after suffering most intensely from famine, surrendered; 
and thus Athens gained at least one disputed point. 

230. But anxiety and care had done their work for Pericles. He 
was attacked by the plague in a modified form, and sunk by slow- 
degrees to his rest. When he was at the point of death, his friends, 
sitting about his bed, began to discourse upon his extraordinary virtue 
and great exploits ; for while he was commander-in-chief, he had 
erected no less than nine trophies to the honor of Athens. They said 
these things, supposing his senses were gone; how great, then, was 
their astonishment when he suddenly aroused, and observed, " I am 
surprised that while you extol these acts of mine, in which fortune 
had her share, you take no notice of the most honorable part of my 
character : that no Athenian, through my means, ever put on a mourn- 
ing robe." Thus died Pericles, who had held the pre-eminence for tho 
space of forty years among some of the most distinguished men Greece 
ever produced ; who had managed the finances of the republic without 
the least taint of avarice; and who, though all the power of the 
magistrates centered in himself, had so preserved his popularity, that 
he was the first great man, after Solon, that escaped banishment. 

231. In the former war with Oorcyra, the Corinthians, having taken 
some prisoners, treated them with the greatest kindness, and sent them 

Questions. — 230. Give an account of his death. What is stated of his acts and character? 
831. What is related of prisoners taken by the Corinthians? 



172 GREECE. [u. c. 423 

home devoted to the aristocratic interest. No sooner had they arrived 
than they created a sedition in the republic. The nobles were assas. 
sinated in the senate-house, and the people were massacred in the 
general assembly. These civil commotions lasted two years, and 
finally the Athenians were compelled to send out an armed force to 
decide the cause in favor of the democracy. 

232. As the fleet, on its return, sailed along the coast of the Pelo- 
ponnesus, a storm compelled the commanders to cast anchor in the 
harbor of Pylos, the ancient seat of old Nestor's kingdom. Foul 
weather prevented their departure ; and the sailors, for amusement? 
assisted the Messenians in their company to erect a fort; and in six 
days Pylos was strong enough to sustain a siege. It was not long 
before the transactions at Pylos were known in Sparta, and the alarm 
occasioned by a Messenian garrison being established within fifty 
miles was very great. To prevent a union between the garrison and 
the Lacedemonian slaves, an army was sent to invest the place by land, 
and the confederate fleet was manned with adventurers who went out 
to take possession of the little island of Sphacterise, lying between the 
fort and the sea. 

233. Meanwhile, the Athenian fleet had moved to Zacynthus, and 
Demosthenes,* who commanded Pylos, found himself blockaded both 
by sea and land. He, however, managed to send a messenger to 
Euryraedon, commander at Zacynthus. The admiral, hearing of the 
critical situation of the little garrison, sailed to its relief, and, driving 
away the Spartan fleet, spread his ships around Sphacteriee, so that 
there was a double blockade: Pylos blockaded by Sphacteria3, and 
SphacteriiB blockaded by the Athenian fleet. Under these circum- 
stances, the Spartans made proposals of peace, which Cleon persuaded 
the Athenians to refuse. " If he were a general," he said, " SphacterisB 
should soon be compelled to surrender; and then they might dictate 
their own terms." Niciast at once offered to resign the command to 
him; but Cleon, who was a notorious coward, declined the honor. 
The people, glad to enjoy a joke, even at their favorite's expense, 
insisted upon his accepting the office ; till finally, thinking it best to 
put a bold face upon the affair, he came forward, and declared that 

* An ancestor of the celebrated orator. 

t A man of birth and fortune, commander of the Athenian army. 



Questions.— 232. Where did the Athenian fleet stop on their return from Corcyra? What 
was done at Pylos? Where was Pylos situated? (See map No. 2.) What was done by 
Sparta? 233. Where was Zacynthus? (See map No. 2.) How did the double blockade 
occur? What then did the Spartans propose? Why was not the proposal accepted ? 



B.C. 124] BRASIDAS AND CLEON 173 

" within twenty days he would bring all the Lacedemonians in Sphac- 
teriae captives to Sparta." 

234. This impudent boast was received with shouts of laughter ; 
but events over which he had no control enabled him to fulfill his 
promise. At the head of a band of adventurers, he reached Pylos in 
safety ; and a fire happening to break out in the woody parts of Sphac- 
teriae, the Lacedemonians were driven from their defenses. Assisted 
by Demosthenes, of whose skill he had the good sense to avail himself, 
Cleon led his men to the attack, killed one hundred and twenty-eigl t 
of the enemy, and, true enough, took all the rest prisoners and carried 
them to Athens. Nothing occurred, during the whole course of the 
war, so contrary to the general opinion as this event; and as the 
prisoners were of the first rank, it was decided to keep them in chains 
till terms of peace were settled ; or, if the Spartans again invaded 
Attica, to put them to death. 

235. b. o. 424. — Revolt of Olynthus. — In this year the Athenians, 
under Nicias, made the important conquest of the island of Cythera. 
A general dejection prevailed in Sparta. During seven campaigns, 
not an individual among the confederates had distinguished himself 
except Brasidas, and he was yet a young man. As the Spartans had 
undertaken the war without an adequate fleet, he saw the policy of 
commencing hostilities in a quarter which would withdraw the Athe- 
nian ships from the coast of the Peloponnesus ; but his countrymen, 
though most courageous in the field, were exceedingly timid in the 
cabinet. Even when Olynthus and other maritime states of Macedon 
entered into a combination to humble the naval power of Athens, it 
was with difficulty that Brasidas persuaded them to send with him an 
army to the north. The Lacedemonians were afraid to diminish their 
force at home, for Pylos was garrisoned by Messenians, and their 
slaves stood ready to revolt. 

236. Proclamation was therefore made, that any Helots, who 
thought they could merit the dignity of citizens by feats of arms, 
should present themselves before the magistrates to undergo the 
honorable trial. The most warlike and ambitious assembled, of course, 
and two thousand being chosen and crowned with chaplets, were 
marched in solemn procession around the temple, as an initiatory cere- 
mony to freedom. Soon after they disappeared, and the massacre was 

Questions.— 234. How did Cleon rise to importance ? 235. Whero was the island of Cy 
thera? (See map N'>. 2.) When did the Athenians capture it? Why were the Spartans 
dejected? What did Brasidas recommend? Why were the Lacedemonians afraid to 
diminish their forces at home ? 236. What hurried preparations did the Spartans make for 
leaving home? Where was Amphipolis ? (See map No. 2.) 






174 GREECE. [b. c. 122. 

managed with snch careful secrecy, that in what manner they perished 
never was known. After this shocking precaution, Brasidas was per- 
mitted to set oat without loss of time. When the Athenians heard 
that Brasidas had marched to Macedon with a large army, they 
ordered Thucydides to move westward with the fleet, and defend 
Amphipolis. He did so; but, being too late by half a day, the place 
surrendered, and Brasidas went into winter quarters there. This loss 
affected the Athenians most sensibly; they banished Thucydides for 
twenty years, and finally agreed upon a truce of one year with the 
Spartans. 

237. b. o. 422. — Battle of Amphipolis. — Cleon, emboldened by his 
accidental success at Sphacteriae, gave the Athenians no rest till they 
sent him with a large army to recover Amphipolis. This time, how- 
ever, fortune did not smile upon him. He led his troops to battle in 
a disadvantageous position, and was defeated. Both generals were 
also slain. The two parties were then about even ; for the death of 
Cleon was better than victory to the Athenians; and the loss of 
Brasidas, worse than defeat to the Spartans. 

238. The war had now been in progress ten years, during which 
both sides had suffered severely. They had alternately ravaged each 
other's lands; they had slaughtered their brethren in battle, and 
executed them as prisoners; they had endured famine and pestilence; 
they had lost their houses, and wasted their revenue; and now, tired 
of hostilities, and ready to let their weapons drop out of their hands, 
they listened to the counsels of the peaceful Nicias, and concluded a 
truce for fifty years, on condition that all the towns and prisoners 
taken should be restored, and the different states placed in the posi- 
tion which they occupied before the war ! 

239. But though the rival powers had concluded upon a peace, 
there was nothing like quiet in the country. The other states thought 
they had something to say upon the subject ; and Corinth, in particu- 
lar, could not consent to give up Potidasa. The people of Amphipolis 
refused to exchange the supremacy of Sparta for that of Athens, and 
Sparta contended that she could not compel them to do so; and thus 
the contest went on, between recriminations and negotiations, affronts 
and reprisals, for the next six years. 

Questions.— 236. Why was Thucydides banished? Where was Amphipolis? (See map 
No. 2.) What is it called now? Ans. Iamboli. 237. On what expedition was Cleon sent? 
When did that occur? What was the result? What made the two parties about even? 
238. How had both parties suffered during the war? What counsels did Nicias give? What 
wa9 the result ? 239. Why did not the truce concluded upon brin<r peace? How were th« 
next six years then spent? Where was Putidaea? (See map No. 2.) 



p.. c. 415.J ALCIBIADES. 175 

240. b. c. 415. — Expedition to Sicily. — There was at this time in 
Athens a young man so eminent for all his qualifications of person, 
mind, and fortune; so ambitious of distinction; and so gifted with 
eloquence and dissimulation, as to mark him at once for a leader of 
that giddy multitude which ruled the city. This was Alcibiades, 
descended in the paternal line from Ajax, and in the maternal from 
the Alcmcaonidce. He was extravagant, but with an air of nobility; 
he was dissolute, but engaging and graceful ; he had been the pupil of 
Socrates, and had thrice won the olive at the Olympic games; he was 
the nephew of Pericles, and the favorite of Aspasia. 

241. After the death of Cleon, Alcibiades came forward to set aside 
the policy of the cautious Nicias, and rekindle a war in which he 
might have full scope to display his abilities. The factions ran so 
high that the ostracism was again called for. Both parties were 
greatl} r alarmed at their danger, for the struggle was between the 
young, who wanted war, and the old, who desired peace. Finally, the 
leaders agreed to join their influence against Hyperbolus, a friend of 
Cleon, who had been instrumental in calling up the ostracism at this 
time. The plan was entirely successful, and Hyperbolus was banished. 
Though the Athenians laughed at first at the turn things had taken, 
yet when they came to reflect that they had honored the low-born 
Hyperbolus by ranking him with Aristides, Themistocles, and Cimon, 
they were so chagrined that they never resorted to the ostracism 
again. 

242. It was just about this time that embassadors arrived from 
Egesta, an Ionian colony of Sicily, praying for assistance against the 
people of Syracuse, who had endeavored to bring them into subjection. 
Alcibiades was for espousing the cause of Egesta at once, but Nicias, 
who knew that to quarrel with a Dorian colony* was, in effect, to 
declare war against the Peloponnesian confederacy, strenuously op- 
posed the rash undertaking. The multitude, however, listened to the 
glowing representations of Alcibiades,! and after some trifling precau- 
tions the expedition was determined upon, Nicias, Alcibiades, and 
Lamachus being appointed commanders. 

243. The prudent Nicias still sought to cool the ardor of the people, 

* Syracuse was a Corinthian colony. 

t When Timon the man-hater saw Alcibiades. after gaining his point, conducted home 
in great honor from the assembly, he went up to him, and shaking his hand, exclaimed, '• Go 
on, my brave boy, and prosper, for your prosperity will bring on the ruin of all this crowd." 

Questions.— 240. In what year was the expedition sent to Sicily ? Who was Alcibiades ? 
What is stated about him? 241. What circumstance put an end to ostracism? 242. Whut 
causes produced the Sicilian war? What reasons were given for and against it? 



176 GREECE. [b. c. 415 

by representing the number of obstacles it would be necessary to sur- 
mount. He said the fleet not being sufficient, a land army must be 
provided at immense expense, and he doubted the ability of the 
Egestans to pay and feed the soldiers. He reminded them that the 
Syracusans would be at home, among friends who could assist them 
with men, money, horses, and provisions; while the Athenians would 
be in an enemy's country, so far from Greece that it would take four 
months to receive supplies in winter; that if they were successful they 
should gain nothing; but if they were unsuccessful it would reflect 
eternal disgrace upon the Athenian name; and for his part, he was 
determined not to go, unless he were supplied with every thing requi- 
site for carrying on the war. 

244. This sensible remonstrance, so far from having the desired 
effect, only furnished the partisans of Alcibiades with a pretext for 
making more magnificent preparations, and a decree was in con- 
sequence obtained for raising as many troops and fitting out as many 
galleys as the generals thought necessary. Indeed, so sanguine were 
the people upon the subject, that young men in their places of exercise, 
and old men in their shops, drew maps of Sicily, and planned the pas- 
sage thence to Africa; for in the splendid conquests of which they 
dreamed, they comprised Carthage, Italy, and the sea, to the pillars 
of Hercules. 

245. The Embarkation. — The levies being completed, the generals 
resolved to set sail immediately for Sicily, by way of Corcyra and 
Rhegium. On the morning appointed for embarkation, the citizens 
enrolled for the expedition appeared on the parade by daybreak. The 
whole city accompanied their march to the Piraeus. In that assembly 
there were no uninterested spectators. No city had ever fitted out so 
numerous and gallant a fleet as the present; and not even the Athe- 
nians, skilled as they were in naval affairs, had ever undertaken so 
grand or distant an expedition ; and no family mingled in the vast 
procession, but felt the honor and the pain of contributing its most 
promising member to this hazardous enterprise. 

246. When the last adieus had been said, and the troops were em- 
barked, the trumpets sounded as a signal for silence, and prayers were 
put up with the greatest solemnity, the whole assembly uniting their 
voices in one grand petition for success. Goblets of wine were then 
produced, from which officers and soldiers together poured out liba- 

Que8tion8.—243. What representations did Nicias make? 244. What effect did the repre- 
sentations produce? Draw a map of Sicily and the principal conquests of Athens. 245, 
? 16. Describe the embarkation. Where was Corcyra? (Map No. 2.) Hhijdum ? (No. 4.) 



b.'c. 415.] ALCIBIADES. 1 



U 



tions, and drank to the prosperity of the commonwealth and the arma- 
ment. Then, far above the roar of the sea and the voice of the wind, 
rose the loud paean of the Greeks ; and amid the waving of banners, 
and fluttering of pennons, the fleet moved majestically out of the 
harbor, the inhabitants of the city following it with their eyes till it 
seemed to be lost between the sea and the sky. At Corcyra the Athe- 
nian squadron was joined by the ships of the allies, and, the winds and 
waves proving favorable, the combined fleet had a prosperous journey 
thence to Sicily. They landed without opposition, and took up their 
station at Catana. 

247. Alcibiades. — This advantageous debarkation of the troops was 
all that Alcibiades effected in the enterprise from which he had antici- 
pated so much glory ; suspicions, which had well-nigh detained him 
in Athens, soon occasioning his recall. Some time before the fleet 
sailed, the statues of Hernias were all mutilated in one night, and it 
was generally believed that Alcibiades and his companions had been 
guilty of the sacrilege during a drunken revel. Taking advantage of 
his absence, his enemies magnified his follies into a plot to subvert the 
government, and many persons were apprehended as being privy to 
the affair. All Athens was in alarm ; the conspirators were thought 
to be in league with Sparta, and one whole night the people watched 
under arms. At last, one of the prisoners told his fellows that it 
would be better to confess something than to submit to torture. They 
accordingly disclosed the pretended plot, and received their liberty as 
a reward for their villainy. 

248. All those whom they accused were immediately condemned 
and executed ; but Alcibiades, whose name figured largely in the awful 
disclosures, being in Sicily, they knew not how to effect his destruc- 
tion. If they put him under arrest there, it might occasion a sedition 
in the army. It was therefore resolved to send the Paralus* after him, 
with a simple command to return to Athens. Immediate obedience 
was paid to this order. Alcibiades followed the sacred trireme in his 
own ship, as the humblest individual in the commonwealth, but when 
they stopped to take in provisions on the coast of Italy he absconded. 
The heralds, having searched for him in vain for several days, returned 
without him. The Athenian people, however, pronounced sentence 
of death against him, in what was called " deserted judgment;" his 

* The sacred trireme. 

Questions.— 246. What occurred at Corcyra? Catana? 247. Of what was Alcibiades ac 
cused? 24S. Why was he not put under arrest in Sicily? What plan was resolved upon 
instead ? What is stated in relation to his absconding ? The judgment against Alcibiades? 



178 GREECE. [h.c. 415. 

whole estate was confiscated, and all orders of religion were com- 
manded to curse him. 

249. When Alcibiades heard of this severe sentence, he exclaimed, 
ll I hope one day to make them sensible that I am still alive." From 
Italy he made his way to Sparta, where he found persons very willing 
to assist his designs against his country.* He told them that the 
Athenians did not mean to bound their conquests by the shores of 
Sicily, but that, after subjecting that island, together with Italy, Car- 
thage, and Spain, they intended, by the aid of numerous fleets ami 
allies, to bring all Greece under their dominion ; and he counseled the 
Lacedemonians, if they would avoid abject dependence, to send an 
army into Sicily, and nip the growing power of Athens in the bud. 
His advice was taken. The Lacedemonians decided to assist the 
Syracusans and renew the war. 

250. Measures of Nicias. — Nicias, meantime, having fortified his 
camp, put off" an attack upon Syracuse week after week, and month 
after month, till finally the buoyant spirits of his troops were all 
evaporated, and they strolled about in search of amusement rather 
than conquest. The Syracusans, too, having recovered from the fright 
which so grand an armament had occasioned, came up to hisintrench- 
ments, and scoffingly asked "if he had come to settle at Catana." 
Roused by this taunt, he determined to settle at Syracuse if anywhere, 
and, with his usual caution, set about making arrangements for that 
purpose. He bribed a Sicilian to go to Syracuse with a story, that the 
Athenians lay in the town every night without their arms, and that on 
a certain morning, which he named, the Syracusans might unite witli 
the disaffected persons in the neighborhood, burn the Athenian camp 
and fleet, and free the island at once of its invaders. 

251. The enemy, pleased with the idea of terminating the war in 
so summary a manner, fell readily into the snare. At the very time, 
however, that the Syracusans set out for Oatana, Nicias left Catana 
for Syracuse, and, landing there in the absence of the garrison, forti- 
fied himself in the outskirts of the town. The Syracusans, on arriving 
at Catana, and finding only an empty camp, were so provoked at the 
trick put upon them, that they marched back to their city with all 
speed, and presented themselves without the walls in order of battle. 

* He gained the confidence of the Spartans by conforming strictly to all the laws of 
Lycurgus. Ho bathed in cold water, took the most violent exercise, and dined on black 
broth, with great relish. 

Questions.— 249. What exclamation is reported of Alcibiades? What evils did he seek 
for his country? 250. Did Nicias act with energy? What was the result? To what 
strutazem did Nicias resort ? 231. Give an account of what followed. Where was Catana ? (4.) 



e. c. 414.] DEJECTION OF NICIAS. 179 

Nicias immediately attacked and beat them. Not, however, having 
courage to commence the siege of the place, he returned with all his 
forces, and went into winter quarters at Oatana. 

252. b. o. 414. — Siege of Syracuse. — The next spring, having re- 
ceived a supply of horse from Athens, Nicias resolved to block up 
Syracuse both by sea and land. He conducted all his movements with 
so much prudence, that he gained possession of a hill that overlooked 
the town, before the Syracusans knew of his approach. By diligent 
exertions, his soldiers inclosed the city with a wall, to cut off its com- 
munication with the country; and, during the time the work was in 
progress, came off victorious in eight different engagements with the 
enemy. Several Sicilian cities, attracted by the prosperous state of 
Athenian affairs, came over to their interest, and supplied them with 
provisions; so that, naturally desponding and cautious as he was, 
Nicias began to conceive high hopes of success. 

253. The Syracusans, on their part, seeing nothing before them but 
famine or the sword, began already to think of surrender, when the 
fleet which the Spartans had fitted out, at the instigation of Alcibiades, 
appeared off the coast ! As Nicias disbelieved the report of Gylippus's 
arrival, he placed no regular guard to prevent his landing, and there- 
fore was not a little surprised and alarmed to see that officer drawing 
up the Syracusans, and marshaling his own forces in order of battle. 
His alarm was changed to anger soon after, when a herald came to 
him, saying, that u Gylippus would allow the Athenians live days to 
quit Sicily." He prepared for battle with unwonted animation, and 
was victorious in the first engagement ; but afterward fortune for- 
sook him, so that, giving up all thoughts of conquest, he sought only 
safety. 

254. Enfeebled by a long and distressing illness, and discouraged 
by the turn of affairs, he transmitted to the Athenians a most melan- 
choly account of his situation. He told them that instead of besieging 
Syracuse he was himself besieged, and in danger of capture. He said 
that his fleet had gone to decay, that many of the ships were leaky, 
and the crews diminished ; that they were forced to go so far for wood 
and water, that they were always fatigued with constant duty; that 
the slaves deserted, and many of the allies went home without leave ; 
that the temper of the Athenian people being averse to subordination, 



Questions.— 251. Did Nicias then lay siege to Syracuse? What did he do? 252. When 
did Nicias finally conclude to lay siege to Syracuse? What advantages and successes did 
he gain? 253. What turned the tables in favor of the Syracusans? Give an account of 
»» : b»t followed. 254. What did Nicias write home? 



180 GREECE. [b.c. 413. 

he found it impossible to control the perverse disposition of some 
under his command; and that it was absolutely necessary for the 
Athenians either to recall the armament, or to send out another, not 
inferior in numbers and equipments, and furnished with more money. 
He closed by begging to be superseded in the command, on account 
of his ill-health, and as a reward for his past services. 

255. It was midwinter when this letter reached the Athenians, 
but immediate preparations were made to retrieve their affairs. Eu- 
rymedon was sent off with a small squadron, and money to pay the 
soldiers, while all hands at home were busily employed in fitting out 
substantial re-enforcements for the spring. As for the request of Nicias, 
they would not listen to it, but they appointed two officers to assist 
him in his charge. The intelligence brought by Eurymedon roused 
all the energies of Gylippus. He attacked the Athenians by sea, and 
was completely victorious ; and wrested from them the fort which 
protected their naval stores, so that they could receive no supplies 
without making their way through the fleet of Syracuse. 

256. b. c. 413. — Arrival of Demosthenes. — Nicias, almost over- 
come with the difficulties of his situation, and the gloom of his pros- 
pects, turned his eyes involuntarily towards his native country, when 
a sight the most animating and cheering burst upon his view. Sev- 
enty-three Athenian galleys, richly decorated, adorned with costly 
streamers, and manned with eight hundred men, were steering for the 
harbor of Syracuse. As they approached the shore, the sound of 
trumpets and the shouts of the sailors made the whole city resound. 
The Syracusans, struck with terror, did not attempt to prevent the 
disembarkation. The joyful greetings and fresh hopes of the adven- 
turers diffused new life through the camp ; but Nicias soon began to 
tremble at the rash measures which Demosthenes advocated. He had 
private intelligence that many of the Syracusans, tired of the imperious 
manner of Gylippus, were making preparations to surrender ; but as 
he was not at liberty to speak openly upon the subject, he advised the 
other commanders to wait a certain time. This, however, only sub- 
jected him to taunts about his timidity, and he was at last forced to 
give up his point. 

257. Demosthenes put himself at the head of the land forces, and 
attacked Epipolse* by night. As he came upon the guards by surprise, 

* A strong fort upon an eminence overlooking Syracuse. 

Questions. — 255. How was his request answered? What disaster befell the Athenians? 
256. What then was their condition ? Describe the arrival of Demosthenes. How did his 
arrival affect the troops of Nicias ? What advice did Nicias give ? Was his advice acceptrd * 



B. c. 413.] THE SEA-FIGHT. 181 

he killed many of them, and routed those who stood upon the defense. 
But when lie reached the spot where the Beotians were posted, his 
men were driven back. As they turned to fly, they encountered 
another band of Athenians coming down the hill, who, mistaking them 
for enemies, fell upon them. In striving to rally, they repeated their 
watchword so often that the enemy learned it, and used it to lead 
them astray. At last the rout was complete. Some fell headlong 
from the rocks or walls. Some escaped, and wandered through fields 
and woods till they were found next day, and cut to pieces by the 
enemy's horse. Thus, at once, were blasted all the hopes which had 
sprung up in the hearts of the Athenians upon the arrival of Demos- 
thenes. 

258. The Sea-Fight. — There remained now only the sad alterna- 
tives of returning in disgrace to Athens with the remnant of the 
splendid armament which sailed from Pira?us under such happy aus- 
pices; or of remaining to die of pestilence, famine, or the sword, in 
Sicily. Demosthenes advocated the former course; but Nicias, who 
understood the Athenian method of rewarding generals, declared that 
" he would rather die by the hands of the enemy than by those of 
Ills fellow-citizens." Thus the favorable opportunity for escape was 
lost, and the sickly season found the Athenians dispirited and doubt- 
ing in their quarters before Syracuse. At last, Nicias, overcome by 
the general calamity, gave orders to strike the tents and prepare to 
move. With the greatest secrecy and dispatch, every thing was put 
in readiness ; but just as the troops were on the point of embarking, 
the moon was shrouded in an eclipse. 

259. This natural phenomenon struck the whole armament with 
terror; and Nicias, who, according to the superstition of the times, 
had always delayed an enterprise three days after such an event, now, 
by advice of his soothsayers, determined to wait nine times three days. 
Quitting every other care, he sat still, observing his sacrifices, and 
praying for favorable tokens, while the Syracusans shut up the mouth 
of the great harbor with galleys anchored firmly with iron chains ; 
nor would he take any measures for repelling the insults of the enemy, 
or effecting a retreat, till the Athenians, with great indignation, called 
upon him to lead them off by land. Unwilling, however, to comply with 
their demand, he made an effort to break through the encircling fleet. 

Questions. — 257. Give an account of the attack made by Demosthenes, and of its imme- 
diate result 258. What alternatives remained for Nicias? What course did Demosthenes 
advocate? Why did not Nicias adopt it then? Why did he afterward chance his mind? 
What occurred as the troops were about to embark ? 259. What was the effect upon the 
troops ? Upon Nicias ? What effort to escape did he at last make ? 



182 GREECE. [p.. c. 413. 

260. Then it was that the great sea-fight began, remarkable not 
only for the vigor and bravery of the combatants, but for the agitation 
and despair of the spectators. The Syracusans came out on the walls 
of their city to behold the sight, and the Athenians thronged the Epi- 
polse to gaze upon the last effort of those gallant seamen who had so 
long been accustomed to conquer, and had so reluctantly learned to 
bear defeat. After suffering incredibly from repeated attacks, the 
Athenian fleet was driven on shore, and the soldiers were so dispirited 
that they neither opposed the enemy who were seizing their vessels, 
nor demanded their.dead. Escape by sea was now impossible. It was 
therefore resolved to move to Catana. 

261. The Retreat. — Nothing could be more affecting than the com- 
mencement of this retreat. The dead were left unburied, though 
thus their souls were condemned to wander in darkness upon the dis- 
mal shores of the Styx ; the dying, abandoned to wild beasts, with 
gloomy presentiment of the same fate, lifted up their last cries in curses 
upon their departing countrymen ; the w r ounded dragged themselves 
along after the army, entreating assistance ; and such a scene of lamen- 
tation and mourning was presented as might have moved even Spar- 
tan hearts to pity. The enemy had seized all the difficult passes, 
broken down the bridges, and stationed cavalry all along their route, 
so that the Athenians could not move one step without fighting. 

262. Nicias, though oppressed with sickness and worn out with 
privations, did all in his power to cheer and encourage his men ; but 
w r hen they remembered his well-grounded objections to the war, and 
saw that so religious a man as he had no better fortune than the most 
profligate soldier in the army, even their trust in heaven abandoned 
them, and nothing but tears and sad presages were seen and heard on 
every side. During a march of eight days, though attacked and har- 
assed by the enemy all the way, Nicias preserved his division tolera- 
bly entire; but the remainder of the army under Demosthenes, having 
lost their way in the night, were surrounded and taken captive. 

263. The next day, Nicias and his band were overtaken at the ford 
of the river Asinarus. The most terrible havoc was made in the ranks 
of the Athenians; and finally Nicias, to stop the slaughter, surren- 
dered on the single condition that Gylippus should spare his men 
yet even then the number of the saved was greatly inferior to the 
number of the slain. When the Syracusans had collected all the 

Questions. — 2C0. Give an account of the sea-nght. What then was impossible ? What 
resolution was consequently made? 261,262. Give an account of the retreat. Of the con- 
dition of the Athenians. Disaster to Demosthenes. 263. Give an account of the next day's 
occurrences. Where is Syracuse ? (Map No. 4.) 



B. c. 413.] EVIL TIDINGS IN ATHENS. 1S3 

prisoners they could find into one body, they dressed up some of the 
tallest and straightest trees by the river with the arms they had 
taken from them, which they left as trophies of the most complete 
victory ever gained on their island. Then, having shorn the horses of 
the Atheuians, and ornamented their own in the most splendid manner, 
they marched home with garlands on their heads, and were welcomed 
to their city with every demonstration of joy. 

264. It would have been a singular triumph for Gylippus to have 
carried Nicias and Demosthenes prisoners to Sparta, but the jealous 
and cruel temper of the Syracusans deprived him of this glory. A 
decree was passed that the generals should be put to death ; and they 
were accordingly scourged with rods, and then stoned. The miserable 
remnants of their once flourishing army were reserved for a still 
severer fate. A vast quarry, whence stone had been taken for build- 
ing the city, was judged the safest place of confinement for such a 
number of skillful warriors. Food was given in quantities barely suffi- 
cient to support life ; no shelter was afforded from the inclemency of 
the weather; and Thucydides summed up their miseries by saying, 
"That no suffering could possibly result from so wretched a situation, 
which was not experienced by the Athenian prisoners." A few of 
them, who were sold as slaves to individuals, gained their liberty by 
repeating passages from the tragedies of Euripides, and lived to thank 
their benefactor in Athens for the obligations they owed to his pen. 

265. The Story told in Athens. — Rumor carried the news of 
this total shipwreck of their power and glory to the Athenians, long 
before an official notice of it could reach them. The first man who 
disseminated the evil tidings, however, being only a poor barber, was 
subjected to the torture, till the whole city was thrown into agony by 
the confirmation of the report. How changed was the morning 
which rose upon Athens, destitute of horse, foot, money, ships, or 
mariners, from that morning when the Piraeus was crowded with a 
gallant fleet, departing as was supposed to certain conquest ! Then the 
excited multitude, with hearts full of hope, stood gazing upon the joy- 
ous flutter of gay streamers and waving pennons; now, bereaved and 
desponding, they looked wistfully across the sea, as if expecting, yet 
dreading to behold, Gylippus with his victorious fleet approaching to 
commence the siege of their city. 

266. But amidst the general gloom they were not idle. As day 

Questions.— 263. Give an account of the proceedings of the Syracusans. 264. What would 
have been a singular triumph to Gylippus? Why were they not carried there? What 
was their fate ? Of their army? How did a few escape ? 265. How were the evil tidings 
received in Greeee? What comparison was made? 



134 GREECE. [b.c. 412 

wore on after day, and no enemy appeared, they began to take cou- 
rage. They levied money for building new ships and raising fresh 
troops; they retrenched all superfluous expenses; and, to avoid the 
embarrassment of factions, established a council of old men to examine 
every matter before it was brought before the people. Meanwhile, 
the attention of all Greece was excited, and the politics of every 
republic put in motion, by the blow Athens had received in Sicily. 
Those who had yielded her an unwilling homage now prepared to 
revolt; those who feared the vengeance of Sparta were impelled to 
do the same; her friends became cold; her enemies impudent; and, 
bleeding as she was from the loss of those members of the common- 
wealth which were her eyes to see, and hands to execute, she felt 
that this severe rebuke was but "the beginning of sorrows." 

267. The Lacedemonians, encouraged by the success of Gylippus, 
also undertook the building of a fleet; and thus, at the close of the 
nineteenth year of the war, preparations were making on both sides, 
as if hostilities were just then commenced. The people of Chios, Les- 
bos, and Oyzicum sent to treat with the Spartans about leaving the 
Athenians to join the Peloponnesian confederacy; Alcibiades had 
gone to Asia Minor some time before, and was now forming a treaty 
with Tissaphernes, satrap of Sardis, for furnishing the Spartans with 
money and ships ; and Pharnabazus, satrap of Bithynia, was also anx- 
ious to gain the friendship of Athens's enemies. 

268. Before, however, the Spartans formed all these alliances, they 
held a congress of the confederates. There they concluded to haul 
their ships, which were in the Corinthian Gulf, across the isthmus; 
to man them in the Saronic Gulf, and send them to Chios and Lesbos 
with the articles of treaty, and dispatch them thence to the Hellespont 
to act with Pharnabazus. This purpose was so far carried into execu- 
tion, that twenty-one triremes had been dragged over the isthmus 
with great labor, and difficulty, and prepared for departure ; but it 
happened that some Athenians, who were there attending the Isth- 
mian games, penetrated the design, and returned home with the start- 
ling intelligence. A company of adventurers immediately set out 
from the Piraeus and attacked the little fleet ; killed the admiral, and 
compelled the crews to draw the ships again upon shore. 

269. Measuees of Alcibiades. — This event occasioned great alarm 

Questions. — 266. What preparations did the Athenians again make ? What effect did tho 
misfortunes of the Athenians have in Greece? 267. What preparations did the Lacedemo- 
nians make? What help came to the Spartans ? What was Alcibiades about ? 268. What 
purpose did the Spartans form in relation to their ships ? How far was it executed ? How 
was it foiled ? Where was the Saronic Gulf? (See Map No. 2.) 



b. c. 411.] INTRIGUES OF ALCIBIADES. 185 

at Corinth, the Spartans too were discouraged, and determined not to 
engage in any enterprise on the other side of the Egean. Thus the 
whole matter would have fallen through, had not Alcibiades under- 
taken the affair. He sailed from Miletus to Chios, confirmed the 
revolt, and brought the Chians into the Lacedemonian confederacy. 
But the glory of Alcibiades was already on the wane : Agis, the Spar- 
tan king, hated him for his private vices; among the confederates many 
envied him ; all feared him, and but few loved him. In his transac- 
tions with Tissaphernes, he managed to gain favor for himself, rather 
than for the people who sent him to ask it; and now, examining the 
doubtful and dangerous position which he occupied, he determined by 
a master stroke of policy "to restore himself to his country, before 
that country was reduced so low as to be not worth returning to." 

270. Yet, urgent as were his reasons for a reconciliation, he still 
feared the giddy multitude by whom he had been condemned. Fully 
convinced that he could never rule in the hearts of the people, as 
Pericles had done, he set about changing the government of Athens 
from a democracy to an oligarchy, with his characteristic zeal. Hav- 
ing strengthened his interest with the satrap by the most subtle flat- 
tery, he managed to communicate with the commanders of the Athe- 
nian fleet at Samos, signifying to them his power to bring Tissaphernes 
into their interest, and through him to lead Darius himself into their 
alliance. But this he would not do, unless the power were taken 
from the Many and given to the Few. The generals of the army, 
being in reality the leading men in the commonwealth, immediately 
sent a messenger to the nobility at Athens, with a request that they 
would assume the government, and deprive the people of the power 
they had hitherto enjoyed. 

271. The nobility joyfully set about the performance of a work so 
congenial to their feelings; nevertheless, up to the last hour of the 
democracy, every thing was conducted in a truly democratic manner. 
A general assembly was summoned. A resolution was passed, per- 
mitting any one to make any proposal without fear. Then it was 
decided that a new council should be formed, having full power to 
administer public affairs. This council consisted of four hundred 
members, but, to amuse the people, it was added, that they would call 
in the aid of five thousand citizens in cases of emergency. Thus the 

Questions— 2G9. What did Alcibiades then do ? Where was Miletus ? (See map No. 2.) 
Cbios? (Same map.) Why was Alcibiades losing favor with the Spartans? Upon what 
d'.d he consequently determine? 270. What did he fear among the Athenians? Why did 
he wish the government changed ? What communication did he send ? 271. By what pro- 
teas was the government changed ? 



180 GREECE. [b. c. iV2 

people of Athens voted away their beloved democracy, after having 
enjoyed it about one hundred years after the banishment of the 
Pisistratidae. 

272. The Tyranny of the Four Hundred. — When the assembly 
broke up, the Four Hundred, vested with their new powers, and fol- 
lowed by one hundred and twenty young men, who acted as attend- 
ants or assassins, as the case might require, entered the senate-house, 
paid the council of Five Hundred the arrears in their salaries, and 
commanded them instantly to retire ; an order which they prudently 
obeyed. Having now all power in their hands, they put to death 
those who disputed their authority ; and feeling fully competent to 
order affairs in the best possible manner, they determined not to recall 
Alcibiades, lest he might interfere in some of their plans. Anxious, 
however, to secure the favor of the army at Samos, they sent out ten 
commissioners to explain their measures, and soothe the feelings of the 
soldiers. This the pacificators found no easy task ; there was no dis- 
guising the facts in the case; the people were deprived of power, and 
Athens was ruled by four hundred tyrants ! The soldiers sent imme- 
diately for Alcibiades, and, having appointed him their general, begged 
him to sail at once for Athens, and destroy the enslavers of their 
country. 

273. This measure, which would have saved Sparta any further 
trouble with Athens, Alcibiades prevented ; using arguments and 
entreaties with some, and force with others. The commissioners 
were, however, sent back with a message from himself, requiring the 
immediate abolition of the self-constituted council, and the restoration 
of the senate. When the commissioners delivered their message, and 
reported the state of things in Samos, the Four Hundred determined 
to submit to Sparta rather than fall into the hands of their infuriated 
brethren. They opened negotiations for this purpose ; but before they 
were able to effect any thing, the people rose against them, and they 
were glad to escape with their lives. Alcibiades was then earnestly 
solicited to make all possible haste to the relief of Athens ; but, proud 
as he was, he wished to return under happier auspices than from a 
mutinying army to a seditious city. Parting, therefore, from Samos 
with a few ships, he cruised along the Egean, in search of some adven- 
ture which should enable him to strike a blow for his country. 

274. Had the Spartans been on the alert during thes^ times of trial, 

Questions.— 212. What is stated of the tyranny of the Four Hundred? What action did 
the 8<>!diers take? 273. What course did Alcibiades then pursue? What became of tho 
Four Hundred ? Why did not Alcibiades then go to the relief of Athens ? 



n c 412.] ALCIBIADES IN THE FLEET.' 1S7 

they might have conquered Attica while the people were hesitating 
between the orders received from the Athenian commonwealth at 
Samos, and the Athenian commonwealth at Athens; but, with tl eir 
usual tardiness, they lost the time in embarrassing negotiations with 
the vacillating Tissaphernes. The false satrap was seeking to play off 
the Athenians against the Spartans, by keeping them in perpetual hos- 
tility; so that soon after he promised Alcibiades to make an alliance 
with the Athenians, he engaged to pay the Lacedemonians for protect 
ing the coasts of the Egean. 

275. Battle of Abyuos. — Myndarus, the Spartan admiral, having 
intelligence from Pharnabazus that the Athenians were in his neigh- 
borhood, directed his course that way; and Alcibiades, hearing of the 
intended fight, followed. The two fleets met near Abydos, and a bat- 
tle ensued which lasted till night, without decisive advantage to either 
side, when several foreign galleys were seen approaching. The Spar- 
tans, recognizing Alcibiades, felt sure of timely assistance; but when 
they saw the Athenian flag hung out, and perceived that he bore down 
upon them with hostile intentions, they thought only of making good 
their retreat. The Athenians having, by the assistance of Alcibiades, 
captured thirty galleys, and recovered their own, erected a trophy. 

276. The Visit. — After this glorious success, Alcibiades prepared 
presents, and w T ent to wait upon Tissaphernes with a princely train. 
The treacherous satrap, however, to throw the balance again upon the 
side of the Spartans, seized him, and sent him prisoner to Sardis. 
From this place he contrived to escape to Clazomenaa, and, finding six 
ships there, embarked immediately and sailed for the Hellespont. 
The troops received him with joy; and learning that Myndarus and 
Pharnabazus were together at Cyzicus, he convinced his men that it 
was necessary to pursue them, and strike a decisive blow. Had the 
Spartans known the number of his fleet, they would not have ventured 
a battle ; but Alcibiades, coming up in a tremendous storm of rain, 
showed only a part of his ships, and when they were engaged poured 
in the others, till the Spartans were completely routed. Pharnabazus 
fled; Myndarus was slain; and the Athenians took every ship of the 
squadron (b. c. 410).- 

277. The soldiers were rewarded with an abundance of spoil ; Cyzi- 
cus surrendered, and the Athenians not only secured the Hellespont, 

Questions.— 274. What opportunity did the Spartans lose? Which side did Tissaphernes 
take? 275. Who decided the battle of Abydos? Give an account of the battle. Where was 
Abydos? (See map No. 2.) 270. Of what treachery was Tissaphernes guilty? How was 
Alcibiades fortunate ? Giv^ nn account of the battle that took place. Wheie was (> zicus ? 
(See map No. 2.) Clazomene? (same map.) 



188 GREECE. [b. c. 408. 

but entirely cleared the sea of Lacedemonians. A letter was also 
intercepted, which, in the Laconic style, was to give the Ephori an 
account of the condition of the Spartans. " Our glory is faded. Myn- 
darus is slain. Our soldiers are starving ; and we know not what step 
to take." Success began to bring back the '■ summer friends " of the 
Athenians. When the islands saw the whole fleet of the Peloponnesus 
annihilated at a blow, and knew that Alcibiades stood at the helm of 
state, they began to think the commonwealth would outride the 
storm ; they talked no more of revolt, or of alliance with Sparta, but 
furnished regularly and cheerfully their stipulated quota of money, 
men, and ships. 

278. Alcibiades, understanding the embarrassments arising from an 
exhausted treasury, determined to bring the towns of Chalcedon and 
Byzantium (which commanded the lucrative trade of the Euxine) 
again under Athenian jurisdiction. Thus fortified, he might treat 
with Pharnabazus, awe Tissapbernes, stop the Spartan supplies from 
Persia, and establish the superiority of Athens beyond question. It 
was a comprehensive and feasible plan, but it came too late. The 
sun of Athens was already in its evening declination, and the dark 
clouds of faction were gathering like a pall around her glory. Alci- 
biades, combining in himself the address of Themistocles and the 
talents of Pericles, prolonged, for a little, her brief day ; but perished 
himself in the ruin of his native city. 

279. In the twenty-fourth year of the war, he led his whole force 
to the siege of Chalcedon. He inclosed it with a wall which reached 
from sea to sea. The Lacedemonian commander of the garrison sent 
to Pharnabazus for assistance, but that prince began to grow tired of 
an alliance which brought frequent battles and no victories, and made 
constant demands upon his purse, without bringing him in either do- 
minion or glory. He therefore sent proposals of accommodation to 
the Athenians, and a treaty was finally concluded in the following 
terms: "That Pharnabazus should pay $20,000 for the ransom of 
Chalcedon ; that all arrears should be paid up, and the Chalcedonians 
pay tribute to Athens as formerly ; and that Pharnabazus should con- 
duct embassadors to the king from the Athenians." On these condi- 
tions the siege of Chalcedon was raised. Pharnabazus, thus secure in 

Questions.— Til. What is said of the intercepted letter? What effect did success have? 
2TS. Why were Chalcedon and Byzantium so important? Ans. Vast quantities of wheat 
were formerly, as now, raised upon the shores of the Black Sea, and the commerce in bread- 
stuffs was regulated by these ports. Where were the two ports? (See map No. 2.) What 
is the present name of Byzantium? Ans. Constantinople. What plan did Alcibiades de- 
termine upon? 279. Give an account of his success as regards Chalcedon. 



B.C. 408.] ALCIBIADES IN ATHENS. 189 

his own satrapy, left Alcibiades at liberty to proceed with the siege 
of Byzantium. 

280. b. o. 408. — Capture of Byzantium, and Return of Alcibi- 
ades. — This place he undertook to reduce by drawing a line of circum- 
vallation about it. But the Byzantines, warned by the fate of Chal- 
cedon, made overtures to him, which lie accepted. A gate was in 
consequence opened to his troops in the night, and after a sharp 
struggle with the Spartan garrison the place was taken, and the flag 
of Athens once more commanded the Bosphorus. The services which 
Alcibiades had thus rendered his country were perhaps greater than 
any Greek had ever before performed. When he first joined the fleet 
at Samos, Athens commanded little more territory than her walls 
inclosed ; she had no revenue ; no regular pay for soldiers ; and they 
were consequently dispirited and mutinous. Under his auspices, her 
dominion had been restored; her fleet again rode triumphant over the 
seas; and the allies again proudly ranged themselves under her ban- 
ners. 

281. His heart now yearned after his native country. He sighed 
to be the acknowledged benefactor of Athens; to walk from the 
PiraBUS to the city saved by his efforts, with a prouder step than when 
he quitted it eight years before, the commander of the Sicilian expedi- 
tion. He longed to stand upon the bema, and sway the most enlight- 
ened audience in the world by the breath of his eloquence ; and to hear 
his praises shouted by the voices which had been loudest to condemn 
him unheard, as the multilator of the Hermse. Having settled affairs 
in Byzantium as rapidly as possible, he led the armament to Samos. 
There, selecting twenty ships of his convoy, he sent the others on to 
Athens, following himself at a distance, agitated alternately with 
hopes and fears as to the reception he should meet. 

282. He cruised along the coast of Laconia until informed by his 
friends that he had been elected general of the commonwealth, with 
two colleagues, when he sailed directly for Attica. Having covered 
his galleys with bucklers and spoils of all sorts, in the manner of 
trophies, and made an imposing display of ships, with their arms and 
ensigns, he entered the harbor of Pirreus. When his approach was 
announced, a vast crowd assembled about the port, each vying with 
the other in extolling the merits of Alcibiades, praising his abilities, 

Questions. — 2S0. Give an account of his success as regards Byzantium. What is stated 
of the services of Alcibiades to Athens? What were those services? 281. What was the 
great desire of Alcibiades? For what did he sigh and long? What arrangements did he 
make to return to Athens? 282. When did he sail for Attica? Give an account of the re- 
ceptioa he met with. 



190 GREECE. [B. c. 407. 

his liberality, and his patriotism. A few, indeed, ventured to whisper 
that he had been the cause of all their misfortunes, by advising the 
Sicilian expedition, and concerting plans for the Spartans; but their 
voices were drowned in the acclamations of the multitude. 

283. His friends gathered round him as he leaped on shore ; such as 
could approach him, crowned him with garlands; while those who 
could not get near for the crowd, viewed him from a distance, shed- 
ding tears of joy. The greetings being over, he proceeded to the city, 
and went into the assembly of the people, where he very modestly 
complained of their treatment, and excusingly ascribed it to the 
influence of some envious demon. He then opened before them the 
hopes and designs he had formed, and they were so much pleased with 
his harangue that they crowned him with crowns of gold, and gave 
him the absolute command of their forces. Thus armed with autho- 
rity and established in favor, he proceeded to direct the enrollment of 
fresh troops, and the equipment of a fleet, with which he proposed 
again to cross the Egean. 

284. Lysander's Policy. — Meanwhile Pharnabazus, with the Athe- 
nian embassadors whom he had undertaken to conduct to Susa, was 
met in Phrygia by Cyrus,* who had come into the western provinces 
clothed with royal authority. The young prince had, however, been 
commanded by his father to assist the Spartans, and the. Athenians 
were consequently repulsed. A general now entered the arena fully 
equal in dissimulation and intrigue to Alcibiades. This was Lysander, 
the Spartan admiral, who, though educated in the laws of Lycurgus, 
and accustomed to the heavy sound of iron money all his life, under- 
stood at once the superior weight of gold and silver. He had been 
sent out in the winter, to take command of the army in Asia Minor; 
and, collecting the scattered forces of Lacedemon at Ephesus, had 
diligently employed the time in building ships and furnishing a fleet. 

285. As soon as he heard that Cyrus had arrived at Sardis, he has- 
tened to pay his court to him, and to acquaint him with the conduct 
of Tissaphernes. Cyrus was very glad to hear the satrap accused, 
because he knew him to be his enemy; and as Lysander conformed to 
all his requests, and flattered him continually, he soon granted him 
whatever he desired. When the crafty Lacedemonian was about to 
take his leave, Cyrus provided a grand entertainment for him, and 
after drinking to him according to the Persian manner, inquired, 

* Brother of Artaxerxes. See article "Cyrus Revolts," in Persia. 

Questions.— 283. Of the occurrences in the assembly of the people. 284. What is said of 
Cyrus ? Of Lysander ? 2S5. What did Lysander accomplish at Sardi s ? 



uc.407.] FALL OF ALCIBIADES. 101 

"What can I do for you that will give you the most satisfaction?' 1 
Lysander replied, " Nothing would gratify me so much as the addition 
of a single obolus* to the seamen's daily wages." 

286. Cyrus was so pleased with this answer, that he made him a 
present of ten thousand pieces of gold. Lysander employed the 
money to increase the wages of his men, a measure which worked 
like magic upon the two fleets. There were, both among the Lacede- 
monians and Athenians, multitudes of Beotians, Phocians, Argives, 
Arcadians, and others, who cared neither for the right or the wrong 
of the matter, but attached themselves to the side which offered the 
best pay. The gold of Persia decided them in favor of the Lacedemo- 
nians ; so that this stroke of policy almost unmanned the Athenian 
galleys. 

287. The Fatal Skirmish. — The news of the alliance between 
Cyrus and Lysander had not reached Athens when Alcibiades, in the 
third month after his return, sailed again for the theater of war. He 
stopped first at Andros, which had revolted. He was in part success- 
ful, but seeing that the walls of the principal city were strong enough 
to sustain a long siege, he erected a trophy, and proceeded to Samos. 
Disappointed in his expectations of gaining the favor of Cyrus, he did 
not yet yield to despair. He anchored his fleet at a convenient dis- 
tance from Ephesus, and left it there in charge of Antiochus, the pilot, 
giving him strict orders not to engage with the Spartans, while he 
went to the Hellespont to raise supplies. Antiochus disobeyed this 
command, went out, and by insulting language provoked Lysander to 
an engagement, was defeated, and slain. Fifteen Athenian ships were 
taken; the remainder escaped to Samos. When Alcibiades heard of 
what had been done, he hastened back, and, drawing out his whole 
force, offered battle ; but Lysander refused to engage, and the Athe- 
nians were compelled to bear the disgrace. 

288. The Fall of Alcibiades. — The people of Athens bore the 
intelligence that Andros had been abandoned very well ; for they 
expected to hear that Chios and Ionia were conquered ; but when the 
report came that their fleet had fled before an inferior force, and that 
an alliance had been consummated between Lacedemon and Persia, all 
Athens was in an uproar. They had thought Alcibiades invincible, 

* About two cents. 

Questions.— 285. What inquiry did Cyrus make? 2S6. What response was made to (he 
request? How was the money used ? 287. Where was Andros? (See map No. 2.) Ephe- 
sus? (Same map.) What was done by Alcibiades at Andros? To what place did he next 
proceed? Give an account of the skirmish there. Of Lysander's offer. 288. What news 
reached Athens? 



192 GRBii 'E. [b. c. 406. 

and their first feeling upon discovering their mistake was one of indig- 
nation and distrust. They suspected that it was not from want of 
ability, but from lack of inclination, that he had not fulfilled his pro- 
mises; and, excited by the startling dangers that lay before them, 
urged on by artful and interested orators, without waiting to under- 
stand the facts in the case, they proceeded to pass the fatal decree 
which sealed the ruin of Athens. 

289. Alcibiades and his associate, Thrasybulus, the two persons 
who, by experience and the gifts of nature, were beyond all others 
the best qualified to save the commonwealth, were dismissed from 
their employments. Ten generals were appointed in their room, of 
whom Conon was chief. Thrasybulus remained with the fleet, but 
Alcibiades retired to his estate in Chersonesus. 

290. b. o. 406. — Battle of Aeginus^:. — At the time of his appoint- 
ment, Conon was employed in the siege of Andros. A decree of the 
people directed him to go immediately, with the twenty ships under 
his orders, and take command of the fleet at Samos. It was already 
late in the year, and on his arrival he found a general dejection per- 
vading the army. His first measure was precisely that for which 
Alcibiades had been condemned. He selected seventy triremes, and 
sent them out in various directions, to collect revenue from such 
islands and towns as had not already revolted. 

291. The term of Lysander's command having expired, he was 
superseded by Callicratidas, his equal in courage, but not in cunning. 
There was too much of the true Spartan in him to stand all day about 
the doors of Cyrus, waiting till he had done drinking, and was ready 
to admit strangers; so, after being laughed at by the porters as an 
ignorant rustic, he went back without any money to pay his soldiers. 
However, he took one of the principal towns of Lesbos by storm, and 
having pursued Conon into the harbor of Mitylene, captured thirty of 
his ships, and besieged him there. Then, hearing that the other gene- 
rals were returning, and making all sail for the relief of Mitylene, he 
advanced to meet them over against Arginusre. His pilot advised him 
to retreat, because the Athenians had the greater number of ships; 
but he replied, " My death would be a small loss to Sparta ; my flight 
would be a disgrace." 

Questions. — 28S. How did it affect the Athenians? Why did they pass the fatal decree? 
2S9. What was the fatal decree ? What appointments were made instead? 290. Where was 
Samos? In what direction from Andros? (See map No. 2.) To what place did Conon 
sail? What was his first measure? 291. Why was Lysander superseded in command? 
Who was his successor? What did Callicratidas accomplish at Mitylene? What advice 
did his pilot give? How did he reply? Where was Lesbos? Mitylene? (Map No. 2.) 



B. c. 405.] BATTLE OF ilGOS POTAMOS. 193 

292. The hostile fleets met, and a bloody action ensued. Callicra- 
tidas, in attempting to break the Athenian line, was precipitated into 
the sea, and drowned. The Spartans soon after fled. The Athenian 
generals brought up their galleys alongside of each other, and held a 
council of war. It was decided to leave Theramenes with forty ships, 
to collect the dead for burial and the wounded from the wrecks; 
while they proceeded, as was first intended, to liberate Conon. But 
neither of these plans was carried into effect. A violent storm came 
on, which compelled all to seek shelter, and thus the unfortunate 
crews of the disabled ships were left to perish. 

293. Reward of the Victors of Arginus^e. — This sudden turn 
of affairs might have retrieved the fallen fortunes of Athens, had she 
not been equally incapable of bearing defeat with fortitude, or success 
with composure. Hence this splendid victory was followed by one 
of the most extraordinary, most disgraceful, and most fatal strokes of 
faction recorded in history. Of the eight generals who commanded 
at Arginusae, six went home, dreaming, perhaps, of garlands and 
crowns which the grateful populace would bestow upon them ; but 
scarcely had they arrived, when they were taken into safe custody till 
they could give an account of their transactions. When the assembly 
of the people met, Theramenes came forward and accused the prison- 
ers of neglecting to save the lives of the wounded, after the battle. 

294. The generals were scarcely permitted to speak a word in their 
own defense. They were hurried through a mockery of a trial, and 
condemned to death. Socrates, who was that day the presiding offi- 
cer of the Senate of Five Hundred, unintimidated by the clamors of 
the people, inveighed against the sentence, as illegal and unjust; the 
voice of the majority, however, prevailed, and they were led off to 
execution! Many followed them with tears to the place of death, 
and felt in that melancholy hour the weight of guilt which had fallen 
upon their country. 

295. Battle of JEgos Potamos. — The Spartans, ignorant of the 
steps Athens had thus taken to accelerate her own downfall, were 
greatly troubled by the defeat at Arginusaa. and the death of Callicra- 
tidas. There was not a man that could relieve their embarrassments 
like Lysander; and the law forbade his re-election to the same office. 
To evade this regulation, they sent out another admiral, with Lysander 
for lieutenant. On reaching his station, Lysander immediately waited 

Questions.— 292. Give an account of the battle of Arginusae. What did the Athenian 
generals then do? 293,294. How were the victors rewarded? Who tried to save them? 
295. How did the Spartans evade a certain regulation? What measures did Lysarulei 
promptly take ? Where was the battle of Arginusae fought ? (Map No. 2.) 
9 



194 GREECE. [b. c. 405. 

upon Cyrus and obtained supplies, which enabled him to pay up all 
arrears, and proceed with his arrangements for opening the campaign 
in the spring, with a fleet equal to that of Athens. Soon after the 
vernal equinox he moved from Ephesus to Abydos, and thence to 
Lampsacus,* where he anchored his fleet. 

296. Conon, hearing that Lysander had gone to the Hellespont, 
pursued him with all speed, trembling for the important cities in that 
region. He stopped at Sestos for refreshment, and that night landed 
at iEgos Potamos, or Goat's River. As the strait there was only about 
two miles wide, the arrival of the Athenians was instantly known to 
Lysander, and he took his measures accordingly. By daybreak next 
morning his galleys were ranged in order of battle. The Athenians, 
equally prompt, rowed out to meet them ; but the Lacedemonians 
rested upon their oars, and gazed upon them in stern silence. These 
movements were repeated three days in succession. 

297. From the top of his castle Alcibiades could see the raanoeu 
vers of the two fleets, and he was shrewd enough to guess at the pur- 
pose of Lysander. In the hour of her danger, his love for his country 
revived ; and though at the peril of his life, he went to the Athenian 
camp and told the commanders, that, as ./Egos Potamos contained no 
harbor, and they were obliged to go every day two miles to market, 
it would be better to move the fleet down to Sestos, and await the 
attack of Lysander there. This advice, so politic and so seasonable, 
was treated with contempt ; and one of the generals was so insolent 
as to bid him begone, for that they, and not he, were now to give 
orders. Alcibiades told his friends who conducted him out of the 
camp, that if he had not been insulted by the generals he would have 
soon brought the Lacedemonians to battle by attacking them with his 
Thracian archers. 

298. It was not long before the wisdom of his counsels was seen, 
for on the fifth day Lysander moved across the strait with his whole 
fleet. Conon alone, of all the Athenian generals, was in any state of 
preparation. When he saw the enemy in motion, he sounded the call 
to arms ; but the soldiers and seamen were too far away to hear it, 
and the Peloponnesians were upon them before they were ready for 
action. Conon's trireme, with seven others of his division, and the 

* A city on the southern shore of the Hellespont, where Themistocles died. 

Questions. — 298. What pursuit took place ? Where did Conon make a landing? Give an 
account of the events of the three days. 297. By what act did Alcibiades manifest his love 
fur his country? How was his advice treated? 29S. Give an account of the battle of JSgos 
Potamos? What did Conon do after the buttle? Where was iEgos Potamos? (MapN>. 2.) 



rc. 405.] CONSTERNATION AT ATHENS. 195 

sacred ship Paralus, having their crews aboard, put off from the shore. 
All the rest were seized at anchor. Finding he could effect nothing, 
Conon fled while the enemy were intent upon the capture, and, having 
cleared the mouth of the Hellespont, hoisted all sail. Afraid to go 
home with the evil tidings, he sent an account of the affair by the 
Paralus, and directed his course to Cyprus, where Evagoras kindly 
received him. 

299. Consequences of the Battle of ^Egos Potamos. — Lysander, 
having taken possession of the Athenian ships to the number of one 
hundred and seventy, began the pursuit of the scattered troops. The 
greater part of them, together with all the generals, were made prison- 
ers. They were carried to Lampsacus, where a council of war decided 
that every Athenian citizen among them should be put to death ; and 
Lysander commenced the work by slaying one of the commanders 
with his own hand. The Athenian marine being thus entirely de- 
stroyed, Lysander had only to sail around the Egean, and take posses- 
sion of the islands and towns upon the coast. As soon as he appeared 
in the strait between Byzantium and Chaleedon, messengers came to 
him from those places with terms of surrender. He sent every Athe- 
nian directly home, that the city, having many mouths to feed, might 
he the sooner reduced by famine. 

300. The Paralus, meantime, protected by its sacred character, had 
reached its destination, with that intelligence which no other ship had 
dared to convey. In the words of another, " Alarm and lamentation, 
beginning immediately about the harbor, were rapidly communicated 
through the town of Piraeus, and then, passing from mouth to mouth 
by the long walls up to the city, the consternation became universal, 
and that night no person slept in Athens." Grief for the numerous 
slain, the flower of Athenian youth, among whom every one had some 
relative or friend, was not all. They feared for themselves ; they had 
abused the day of power, and they trembled at the approach of the 
day of retribution. Athens was not yet without men capable .of guid- 
ing her through any ordinary difficulty, but she was now in a strait 
from which there was no egress. 

301. On one side howled the waves of faction, decreeing death to 
the proposer of an unsuccessful measure; on the other frowned the 
power of Lacedemon, stern and immovable as the pillars of Hercules. 
None knew what course to take; the orators dared not advise; the 



Question-?. — 299. What became of the captured Athenians? "What then did Lysander 
do? 300. What news did the Paralus take to Attica? How did the news affect the Athe- 
nians ? 301. What strait was Athens then in ? 



196 GREECE [b. c. 104. 

democracy dared not decree; the aristocracy dared not command. 
To raise another fleet would be impossible ; to venture a battle with 
the Spartans by land would be madness; and, exhausted by the efforts 
of despair, all ranks sullenly prepared to sustain a siege, both by sea 
and land. Lysander, having cruised leisurely along the Hellespont, 
and received the submission of the cities, sent off a part of his fleet to 
secure the islands, and dispatched a messenger to the Spartans, telling 
them that he was ready to sail to the Piraeus with two hundred 
triremes. 

302. Siege of Athens. — No sooner was this intelligence received, 
than the Peloponnesians summoned their allies to assist in putting a 
final period to a war, which had lasted, with little intermission, 
twenty-six years. All the states except Argos sent out their troops ; 
the whole force of Laconia was mustered for the important occasion. 
Effecting a union upon the borders of Attica, they marched fearlessly 
up to the walls of Athens, and fixed their head-quarters in u Acade- 
mus's sacred shade." Lysander arrived at the appointed time, and 
cast anchor in the harbor, and thus all supplies were cut off from the 
devoted city. No assault was attempted ; famine did its work with 
fearful certainty ; and the Lacedemonians looked on with perfect com- 
posure while their long-hated rival wasted away. 

303. Yet it was not till many had died of hunger that any even 
proposed to capitulate ; and then it was three long and weary months 
before the terms were fixed upon. The Corinthian and Theban allies, 
indeed, contended that no terms should be granted ; they said that the 
people ought to be sold into slavery, and the site of the city made a 
sheep-walk, like the Cirrhaean plain. The Spartans, more merciful, 
settled the following conditions: "That all ships of war should be sur- 
rendered, except twelve; that the long walls and the fortifications of 
the Piraeus should be destroyed ; that all the exiles should be restored 
to the rights of the city ; that the Athenians should hold for friends 
or enemies all other people, as they were friends or enemies of Lace- 
demon ; and that the Athenian forces should go wherever Lacedemon 
might command, by land or sea. 1 ' 

304. When these proposals were received, food had become so 
scarce that it was impossible to hold out many days; yet it was not 
without much debate that the vote was gained to accept the condi- 
tions. The Spartan king, Agis, and Lysander, with their troops, then 

Questions.— 301. What movements did Lysander make ? 302. How long had the war 
lasted? What united efforts were made to bring it to a close? How was Athens pro- 
ceeded against? 303. What conditions were the Athenians finally compelled to submit to ♦ 



B.C. 404.] THE THIRTY TYRANTS. ^97 

began the demolition of those walls which had so long made Athens 
impregnable. A band of musicians was employed, to animate them in 
the work of destruction by the sound of their instruments; while the 
confederates, crowned with flowers, danced for joy, and hailed the 
day as the first of their liberty. 

305. — b. 0. 404. — The Spartans next proceeded to give laws to 
Athens. 'Notices were sent to the exiles and fugitives to return and 
take possession of their estates. The assembly of the people was 
abolished, and the supreme authority committed to a council of thirty, 
among whom was that Theramenes who procured the death of the six 
generals. Affairs being thus settled, Agis led away his forces, and 
Lysander sailed to Samos, conquered the island, and banished all who 
resisted his power. Having secured the Egean, he dismissed the ships 
of the allies, and, with his Lacedemonian squadron, returned home. 
"So ended the Peloponnesian war, in its twenty-seventh year; and so 
Lacedemon, now in alliance with Persia, became again the leading 
power of Greece ; and the aristocracy triumphed over the democracy 
in almost every commonwealth of the nation." 

306. The Thirty Tyrants.— Though the Spartans would not, as 
they said, " be guilty of putting out one of the eyes of Greece," by the 
entire destruction of Athens, yet, wishing to destroy entirely her poli- 
tical importance, they chose men for her tyrants who had nothing to 
recommend them but a hatred of democracy. These men, instead of 
giving to the republic a more perfect body of laws, merely chose 3,000 
citizens to confirm their decrees, and help them bear the odium which 
repeated executions brought upon them. The chairman of the Thirty 
was Critias, a man who, having been banished, had resided for some 
time at Sparta, where he published a treatise upon the institutions 
and laws of that country, which probably recommended him to Lysan- 
der. This man determined to be lord of Athens. The others became 
passive subjects of his will; the 3,000 sanctioned his acts; and the 
whole city was soon filled with fines, imprisonments, confiscations, and 
executions. 

307. Fearing, however, the revenge their tyranny was calculated to 
excite, the Thirty obtained a guard from Sparta, and by their assist- 
ance put to death all who opposed them. But though Athens was 
tli us fallen and enslaved, she still retained the empire of mind. So- 



Questions.— 304, 305. How were the conditions carried out? What then did A-ris and 
Lysander do? In what year did the war close ? By what name is the war known ? What 
position did Lacedemon then hold? What is said of the aristocracy ? 306. What is said of 
the Thirty Tyrants? Of Critias? 307. What fears had the Thirty t How did they quiet 
their fears ? What did Athens still retain ? 



198 GREECE. O c. 404 

crates, Xenophon, and Plato still resided within her dismantled walls ; 
Alcibiades, Thrasybulus, and Conon, though in exile, possessed such 
abilities as few men could boast ; and amid all their misery, the people 
flattered themselves that while they lived Athens could not be wholly 
undone. Their hopes were disappointed in Alcibiades, but more than 
realized in Thrasybulus and Conon. 

308. The Tyrants also feared Alcibiades, and sought his ruin. When 
me Lacedemonians gained the empire of the sea, he left his home in 
the Chersonesus aid tooit refuge in Bithynia; intending, like Themis- 
tocles, to visit the Persian court, and gain that protection from a 
foreign power which his own country could not afford him. He was 
residing in a small village in Phrygia when Lysander, having received 
a scytale from Sparta to get Alcibiades dispatched, sent to desire Phar- 
nabazns to put the decree in force. The persons intrusted with the 
execution of this dastardly order surrounded the house of the illus- 
trious Athenian, and set it on fire. Alcibiades forced his way through 
the flames and drove back the barbarians, who, retreating to a dis- 
tance, overwhelmed him with a shower of darts and stones. He sunk 
down under a multitude of wounds, and expired. Timandra, his mis- 
tress, took up his body, dressed it in the finest robes she had, and per- 
formed over it those ceremonies necessary to secure the soul an 
entrance into the kingdom of Pluto. 

309. Successful so far, the Thirty proceeded to still greater lengths 
in wickedness. To support their riotous expenses, and pay their Spar- 
tan guard, they concluded to select every one his man ; accuse him of 
some crime ; cause him to be put to death ; and seize upon his estate. 
Theramenes was struck with horror at this proposal. He inveighed 
against it in the strongest terms, but he only brought destruction 
upon himself. Critias denounced him, and, by bringing his guards 
with drawn swords about the place of trial, awed the judges into a 
sentence of condemnation. He sprang to the altar, and claimed pro- 
tection from its sanctity; but the Thirty had lost all fear of the crime 
of sacrilege; he was dragged to prison, and compelled to drink the 
hemlock; a fate which would have commanded more of our commi- 
seration, had he not himself brought about a similar tragedy in the 
case of the victors at ArginusEe. 

310. Thrasybulus. — Meanwhile, Thrasybulus, who had been living 

Questions.— 307. In whom? What hopes did the Athenians still have? In whom were 
the hopes disappointed ? In whom realized? 30S. Give an account of the death of Alci- 
biades. What, ceremony did Timandra perform? 309. What wickedness did the Thirty 
next plan? Give an account of the death of Theramenes. 310. Where had Thrasybulus 
been living in the mean time? 



e. c. 39C.J SOCRATES. 199 

at Thebes, felt the miseries of his country, and longed to relieve them. 
He conversed with those who fled thither from Athens, and gradually 
collected a party of followers, not formidable indeed from their num- 
bers, but all determined in the cause of freedom. Without exciting 
the suspicions of the Thirty, he made the necessary arrangements, and 
with his little band seized on the strong fortress of Phyle, about 
twelve miles from Athens. The Thirty, their guard, and the assistant 
3,000 marched out to dispossess them, and sat down before the town 
in the form of a regular siege ; but a great snow-storm coining on, 
they were obliged to march back to the city. Thrasybulus, being 
re-enforced by other citizens, pursued his course, and took possession 
of Piraeus. The Thirty, and all the followers they could muster, 
attacked them there, but were defeated, and Critias was slain. As the 
rest were flying, Thrasybulus cried out, " Wherefore do you fly from 
me as a victor, rather than assist me as the avenger of your liberty? 
We are not enemies, but fellow-citizens; neither have we declared 
against the city, but against the Thirty Tyrants. 1 ' 

311. The attacking army listened and were convinced. Thrasybu- 
lus, at the head of his associates, and the volunteers who came over 
to his side, marched into the city in triumph, expelled the Thirty, and 
appointed ten magistrates in their room. The Tyrants met the death 
they so richly merited, and Athens resumed her ancient laws. The 
Spartans ratified the acts of Thrasybulus ;* a general amnesty was pro- 
claimed : it was decreed that all past actions should be buried in obli- 
vion ; and as these things took place in the archonship of the Euclides, 
all events beyond the time of legal memory were said to be " Before 
Euclides." The laws of Solon were transcribed and put in force, and 
quiet once more reigned in the city. 

312. Death of Socrates. — At this time, when the greatest zeal 
was professed for the revival of the ancient institutions, all who had 
uttered any thing against the old laws and usages of the state were 
looked upon as dangerous persons. In this number was found the 
wise and virtuous Socrates.t Amid the darkness of paganism he had 

* Pausanias, the king, secretly favored Thrasybulus, and obtained peace for Athens. 

t Socrates, the son of a statuary, was born b. c. 470. He was exceedingly homely, and 
very ungraceful in his manners; and being deprived of his little property by the dishonesty 
of a relation, his prospects for rising in the world were very small ; but a wealthy Athenian, 
observing his love of study and wonderful abilities, took him into his house, and gave him 
the care of his children. Here he had the privilege of attending the lectures of the most 



Questions— 310. Upon what did he determine? What was his first successful step? 
Give an account of the attack upon him. 311. Who restored liberty to Athens ? What fol 
lowed ? 312. For what was great zeal in Athens professed at that time * In what number 
was Socrates included? 



OQO GREECE. [b. c. 399. 

attained the idea of One Supreme Being, whom he acknowledged as 
the framer and preserver of the universe ; and he consequently treated 
many of the superstitions of the times with contempt. Having also 
been eye-witness to the inconstant, uncertain, and even cruel govern- 
ment of the democracy, he had expressed some aristocratic sentiments; 
and having been the tutor of Alcibiades and Critias, their follies and 
vices were in some measure imputed to him. 

313. These circumstances constituted "the head and front of his 
offending;" but as the Athenians had been too much engaged with 
other affairs to do more than to listen to the ridicule which the comic 
poets heaped upon him, no notice had been taken of his atheism ; 
now, when the revolution of Thrasybulus had placed them again at 
ease, it seems to us quite natural that they should seal the dark 
scroll of a century, peculiar for instances of ingratitude, with the blood 
of the purest and wisest of their citizens. 

314. Instigated by the rhetoricians and sophists, whom Socrates 
had irritated by his cutting sarcasms, a young man went to the 
king-archon, and impeached him in the following form: "Melitus, 
son of Melitus, declares these upon oath, against Socrates, son of 
Sophroniscus. Socrates is guilty of reviling the gods whom the city 
acknowledges; and of preaching other new gods; moreover, he is 
guilty of corrupting the youth of Athens. Penalty, — death." Before 
the case was tried, one of his friends composed a speech, and brought 
it to Socrates for his defense ; but he refused to use it, or to resort to 
any of those methods by which criminals are accustomed to move the 
hearts of their judges to mercy. He looked upon death with pleasure, 

eminent philosophers; and applied himself to the study of nature, with a diligence that 
made him " wiser than all his teachers." He served the regular term in the militia, and 
signalized himself at the siege of Potidrea, both by his valor and the hardihood with which 
he endured fatigue. But though he did not refuse his country's call to the field, he had no 
taste lor the excitements of a military life. He loved better to walk through the Academia, 
attended by the youth of Athens, giving instruction by asking such questions as exposed 
*he absurdities of error. Indeed, he looked upon the whole city as his school, and neglected 
10 occasion of communicating moral wisdom to his fellow-citizens. It was his custom, in 
the morning, to visit those places set apart for gymnastic exercises ; at noon, to mingle with 
the crowds in the market-places ; and to spend the rest of the day where he could instruct the 
greatest number of persons. In the evening, he generally took a lecture from his wife. 
This woman, whose name was Xantippe, exercised her tongue upon the failings of the 
patient philosopher without any mercy. Sometimes she would become so enraged as to 
tear his cloak upon his shoulders in the open street. Socrates, instead of attempting to 
control her temper, consoled himself with the idea that if he could bear her insults, no other 
circumstance would have power to annoy him. While he was in prison, Lis friends came 
to see him and enjoy his conversation. One of them lamenting that he should die inno- 
cent, — " What,' 1 said Socrates, " would you have me die guilty T" 

Questions. — 312. What is said of the religious views of Socrat"S? Of his political views ? 813. 
Why had not the Athenians taken notice of the onvnses of Socrates before ? 314. What formal 
charge was brought against Socrates? What refusal did he make? How did he lookupor death? 



b. c. 401.] RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND. 901 

as a relief from the joyless period of old age. He however declared 
his innocence in the strongest terms, and contended that he deserved 
rewards and honors, rather than the punishment of the malefactor. 

315. After his condemnation, he addressed his judges in a speech 
of some length, and in conclusion said: "But it is time for me to 
depart — I to die, you to live; but which for the greater good, God 
only knows." It was customary to exeoute on the day following trial, 
but as the sacred galley had just been crowned and sent to Delos, it 
was not lawful to put any one to death till its return. Thus for thirty 
days Socrates lived in the prison, conversing freely with his friends, 
and unfolding his doctrines with the greatest force and power. When 
the fatal cup was brought to him, he took it with a serene air, and 
drank its contents with the most perfect composure. He walked 
about till he felt the poison begin to work, and then lay down and 
expired, b. o. 399. He was seventy years of age. 

316. b. o. 401. — Retkeat of the Ten Thousand. — In the first 
year of the former century, Cyrus betrayed the secret of the favor 
with which he had treated the Lacedemonians. Looking upon them 
as the bravest soldiers of Greece, he had sought to attach them to his 
person, that they might assist him in a revolt against his brother, 
Artaxerxes Mnemon. The Grecians who were led by him in this 
enterprise to the plains of the Euphrates, consisted of a body of Spar- 
tans under Clearchus, a body of Athenians under Proxenus, and 
volunteers from the other states, amounting in all to thirteen thousand 
men. Cyrus having been slain in the battle of Cunaxa, the Greeks 
were left without a leader or guide in a strange land. 

317. By the chances of war, the length of the way, and the incle- 
mencies of the season, they had lost three thousand of their number ; 
but in the beginning of this century, the famous Ten Thousand reached 
Byzantium in safety. Opinions were then divided a& to what course 
it was best to pursue. Some proposed to seize upon several cities of 
the Chersonesus, and plant a colony there; others were for returning 
directly home. The states which owned the adventurers were little 
pleased with the prospect of being visited by ten thousand armed 
men, who had subsisted by plunder more than a year; they began. 



Questions.— 314. What did he declare ? What claim ? 315. Give an account of his death. 
In what year did he die? How old was he then? 316. How did Cyrus regard the Lace- 
demonians? What did he seek as regards them? How large an army of Grecians did 
Cyrus lead to the plains of the Euphrates? Of whom were they composed? How came 
the Greeks to be left without a leader? 31T. How many of the thirteen thousand reached 
Byzantium ? What had become of the others ? Upon what were opinions divided ? What 
prospect did not please certain states? 
9* 



202 GREECE. [b. c. 396. 

therefore, to plan a war which should engage the attention of the 
returning soldiers. The Ionian colonies of Asia Minor, having contri- 
buted money and men to the unfortunate expedition of Cyrus, began 
now to fear the vengeance of their king, whose satrap, Tissaphernes, 
had returned, clothed with new powers, to Sardis. 

318. Messengers from the Ionians arrived in Lacedemon, imploring 
protection, just about the time that the Spartans were inquiring where 
a war could be kindled to the best advantage. It was immediately 
determined to grant the required aid, and the forces sent out from 
home were directed to enlist the forces just returning from the east. 
Xenophon, with a body of six thousand, accordingly entered the army 
of Agesilaus, and from his pen we have an account of those exploits 
of the Spartans, which made the monarch tremble in his distant capi- 
tal at Susa. Convinced by the victories of Marathon, Thermopylae, 
Salamis, and Platea, of the immense superiority of the Grecian soldiers 
over the common hirelings of the day; and now stimulated by the 
glorious "retreat of the Ten Thousand," Agesilaus formed the bold 
and grand design of dismembering the Persian Empire, and giving to 
each satrapy its freedom, as freedom was understood among the 
Greeks. 

319. Agesilaus. — The good old king, Archidamus, who led the con- 
federates in the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, at his death left 
two sons, Agis, who succeeded him, and Agesilaus, who was at that- 
time quite young. As the crown belonged in the family of Agis, 
Agesilaus had nothing before him but a private station, and therefore 
was educated according to the institutions of Lycurgus; but he always 
showed such an ambition to excel, and at the same time such a sense 
of honor and justice, as made him the peculiar favorite of his com- 
panions. When his brother refused to acknowledge Leotychidas, con- 
sidering him the son of Alcibiades, Agesilaus began to entertain hopes 
of the crown; and no sooner was Agis dead, than Lysander, by various 
intrigues, raised him to the throne of Sparta. This being accomplished 
about the time that the Ionian colonies sent to Sparta for assistance, 
Lysander persuaded Agesilaus to undertake the affair, and went him- 
self in the capacity of counselor. 

320. The Campaigns of b. c. 396, 395, and 394. — When Agesilaus 

Questions. — 317. What is said of certain Ionian colonies? 818. What request di<l the 
Ionians make? How was the request, met? Who formed the plan of dismembering the 
Persian empire? What circumstances gave rise to the project? 319. How was Agesilaus 
educated? What is said of his character? By what circumstances was he made kins of 
Sparta? What events took, place about that time? To what was Agesilaus persuaded? 
Who persuaded him ? In what capacity did Lysander go? Who commanded the expe- 
dition? 



B.C. 395.] AGESILAUS IN ASIA. 203 

arrived at Ephesus, Tissaphernes sent to inquire what induced him to 
take up arms in Asia. Agesilaus replied, that lie had come to aid the 
Greeks established there, and to restore to them their ancient liberty. 
The satrap assured him that his master would give the Greek cities 
their freedom ; and finally engaged him to enter into a truce, while 
couriers could go to Susa and return with the commands of the great 
king himself. Agesilaus spent this interval in making suitable regula- 
tions, and learning the exact force of the cities; but Tissaphernes. false 
as ever, privately assembled troops on all sides. Having every thing 
prepared, he sent heralds to Agesilans, commanding him to withdraw 
immediately from Asia, and declaring war against him in case of 
refusal. To be revenged upon Tissaphernes, Agesilaus gave out that 
he was going to plunder the province of Caria, but, when the barba 
rians were drawn to that quarter, he turned suddenly into Phrygia, 
took many cities, and enriched himself with immense spoil. 

321. — b. o. 395. — The next spring, he intimated that he should visit 
Lydia. The satrap did not believe him ; and Agesilaus had established 
himself upon the plains of Sardis before Tissaphernes could get there 
with his forces, and when the armies met, the Greeks routed the bar- 
barians with great slaughter. This campaign finished the race of 
Tissaphernes. The treacherous satrap, who had deceived the Spar- 
tans and the Athenians; who had acted the part of informer twice by 
young Cyrus, and stained his hands with the blood of the Grecian 
generals ; now, being thought guilty of treason to his sovereign, was 
beheaded. 

322. From Lydia, Agesilaus marched into the province of Pharna- 
bazus, where he pitched his camp, and not only lived in plenty, but 
collected large subsidies. Pharnabazus, instead of attempting to drive 
him away, collected his furniture, and moved about from place to 
place. At last, becoming wearied with this manner of life, he sent to 
desire a conference with his enemy. Agesilaus assented, and coining 
first to the place appointed with his friends, sat down upon the long 
grass in the shade. The Persian grandee came up, and his servants, 
as their custom was, began to spread soft skins for him to recline 
upon, but he had the grace to be ashamed of this luxury, and care- 
lessly threw himself upon the ground beside the Spartan. 

323. He opened the negotiation by complaining of the Spartans for 

Questions.— 320. When he arrived at Ephesus, what question was put to him ? What was 
nis reply ? Of what treachery was Tissaphernes guilty? How did Agesilaus extricate him- 
self? Where was Phrygia? (See map No. 2.) 321. In what year did Agesilaus gain a 
victory on the plains of Sardis? Give an account of the battle. Give a closing account of 
Tissaphernes. 322, 323. What 's stated of Agesilaus and Plumiabaaius ? 



204 GREECE. [b. c. 395 

ravaging his country, when he had always been their fnena, and had 
assisted them so much against the Athenians. Agesilans was a little 
embarrassed by this just rebuke, but excused himself by inviting 
Pharnabazus to join the league against the king; telling him that from 
the moment he threw off his vassalage, the Grecian arms, ships, and 
battalions should become the guardians of his liberty. Pharnabazus 
replied, "If the king sends another lieutenant in my room, I will be 
with you; but while he continues me in the government, I will to the 
best of my power repel force with force, and make reprisals upon you 
for him." Agesilaus, charmed with this reply, took his hand, and 
parted with him in the most friendly manner. 

324. All Asia was now ready to revolt from the Persians. Agesilaus 
settled the police of the cities, and brought them into excellent order, 
without banishing or putting to death a single subject. Encouraged 
by the success which had crowned his efforts, he determined to re- 
move the seat of war from the coasts of the Egean to the heart of 
Persia, that the king might be called upon to fight for Ecbatana and 
Susa instead of sitting there at his ease, and hiring the states of 
Greece to destroy each other. In the midst of these splendid schemes, 
a messenger came to him from Greece, to tell him that Sparta, was 
involved in a war with the other states, and that the Ephori had sent 
him orders to come home and defend his own country. To explain 
the reasons of this command, which stopped the conquests of Agesi- 
laus, and left Asia unconquered for Alexander, it will be necessary 
to examine the position of the different republics after the fall of 
Athens. 

325. Spaeta and Thebes. — "When the Peloponnesian war closed, 
the Spartans considered themselves undisputed masters of Greece. 
Those states, however, that had been so anxious to exchange the supre- 
macy of Athens for that of Lacedemon, found they were no great 
gainers by the bargain. Spartan pride was quite as intolerable as 
Athenian arrogance. Corinth, in particular, who had felt herself a 
/ery important character during the war, disliked to assume the 
position of an humble ally ; and Thebes also, having gradually risen 
to eminence, began to aim at independence. The result was, Corinth, 
Thebes, Athens, and several other cities entered into a league against 
Sparta. Instead of allowing, as formerly, supremacy to one republic, 
the new confederates formed -a congress, composed of deputies from 
the different states, who should be empowered to regulate the affairs 

Questions.— 324 Upon what change did Agesilaus then determine? How were his 
schemes frustrated ? 325. Give some account of the internal commotions of Greece. Wluu 
league was formed against Sparta? What is said of it as regards its congress? 



b. c. 394. J AGESILAUS IN CHERONiEA. 205 

of the Greek nation. This league was devised and carried into effect 
by orators whom Tithraustes, successor to Tissaphernes, had hired* to 
excite a war in Greece, thinking that such an event would occasion 
the recall of Agesilaus. 

326. The Spartans sent an army into Beotia under Pausanias, and 
directed Lysander to draw down with his forces from the Hellespont. 
He did so, but, failing to effect a junction with his king, he was de- 
feated and slain. Pausanias, not thinking it prudent to hazard another 
engagement, merely begged a truce to perform the funeral rites of the 
slain. The Ephori cited him to give an account of his measures, but, 
fearing punishment for his unskillful conduct, he fled to another city. 
In this embarrassing position of their affairs, the Spartans Avere com- 
pelled to send for Agesilaus from Asia, at the very time when he 
seemed likely to humble the Persian empire in the dust. Unwelcome 
as was this call to Agesilaus, still he hesitated not to obey it. Hastily 
arranging his affairs, in such a manner that they might be in readiness 
for his return, he marched to the Hellespont, crossed Thrace and 
Macedonia, and entered Thessaly by nearly the same route that Xerxes 
had traveled about a century before. 

327. As he was passing through this country, he heard that a great 
battle had been fought near Corinth, in which the Spartans were vic- 
torious ; but instead of being elated by the intelligence, he exclaimed, 
with a deep sigh, " Unhappy Greece ! why hast thou destroyed with 
thy own hands so many brave men, who, had they lived, might have 
conquered all the barbarians in the world." Having passed the straits 
of Thermopylae, and traversed Phocis, he entered Beotia, and encamped 
upon the plains of Cheronaea. Here the army of the allies met him, 
and a battle was fought which Xenophon says was the most furious 
one of his time. Agesilaus was pierced through his armor with spears 
and swords in many places. He was, however, victorious. Though 
much weakened by his wounds, he would not retire to his tent till he 
had been carried through all his battalions, and seen the dead borne 
off upon their shields. This splendid victory, however, could not 
relieve his mind from the anxiety occasioned by the distressing intel- 
ligence which he received a few days before the battle. 

* He hired them with 30,000 pieces of money impressed with the figure of an archer; 
which gave Agesilaus occasion to say, " that 30,000 of the king's archers drove him out of 
Asia." 

Questions. — 325. By whom was it devised and carried into effect? 326. What hefell 
Lysander? What is said of Pausanias? Now state why Agesilaus was recalled to Greece. 
What route did he take to Greece? 32T. When in Thessaly, what news did he hear? How 
did it affect him ? Mention the particulars of the battle of Cheronsea. Where was Chero- 
nu2a? (See map No. 2.) 



206 GREECE. [b. c. 394 

328. Conon defeats tiie Spartans at Sea. — That Conon who 
fled with nine ships from the disastrous action at iEgos Potamos, had 
not been unmindful of his country in her fallen state. When Evagoras 
first received him, Conon entered readily into his service, doing all in 
his power to improve the Cyprian fleet ; and no sooner had Agesilaus 
left Asia, than he brought about an alliance between his friend and 
Pharnabazus. He even visited the court of Artaxerxes, and convinced 
that monarch of his own ability to drive the Spartans out of the 
Egean, if he had but a fleet. Thus, before Agesilaus had reached 
Beotia, Conon, Evagoras, and Pharnabazus were furnished with ships, 
money, and men, to revenge the injuries of their several countries 
upon the Spartans. Agesilaus had left the Spartan fleet under the 
command of his brother-in-law, a brave but inexperienced officer. 
Conon, with his confederates, attacked, defeated, and slew him, and 
took fifty ships. This was the news which reached Agesilaus in 
Beotia, and destroyed at once the hopes he had formed of subverting 
the Persian Empire. Though victorious in every engagement on his 
route from Beotia to Sparta, he could not escape the painful reflection 
that his parent state had already lost the command of the sea, and 
that the armies which should have conquered her most distant foes 
were only able to protect her at home. 

329. Two Expeditions. — Athens Rebuilt. — The next spring, Co- 
non and Pharnabazus undertook the work of revolution, and from the 
shore of Ionia to the oft-conquered Melos, every island threw off the 
yoke of Sparta. Thence proceeding to the coast of Laconia, they 
effected a landing in various places, plundered and ravaged the coun- 
try, and sailed away before the inhabitants had time to rally in self- 
defense. They took the island of Oythera, and placed it under an 
Athenian garrison. Then directing their course to the Corinthian 
isthmus, where the congress of the confederacy was assembled, they 
visited the leading men, concerted measures with them for prosecuting 
the war with Sparta, and, having furnished them with a sum of money, 
sailed again for Asia. 

330. Encouraged by the joy of Pharnabazus at this successful expe- 
dition, Conon now revealed the design he had meditated from the 
beginning. He represented the expense and inconvenience to Persia 
of maintaining the fleet, and he proposed that the satrap should trans- 
fer this burden to Athens, after having first put her in a situation to 

Questions. — 328. How had Conon been employed meantime? What news reached Age- 
silaus in Beotia? What hopes did the news destroy? What reflection was painful to 
Agesilaus? 329. What did Conon and Pharnabazus accomplish? 330. What design did 
Ct/ .on reveal? 



bc. 387.] PEACE OP ANTALCIDAS. 207 

exact tribute from the islands as formerly, and secured her against 
the attacks of Lacedemon. The liberality of Pharnabazus granted 
all that Conon desired. He permitted him to re-establish Athenian 
supremacy in the Egean, and to rebuild his native city. 

331. Thus the unfortunate commander at iEgos Potamos, after thir- 
teen years' voluntary exile, returned with the present of a fleet, forti- 
fications, money, timber, masons, mechanics, and dominion in his 
hand, to restore his ruined country. The states of the confederacy 
lent their aid to the city which they had formerly hated and humbled: 
every person wrought with diligence, and Athens soon " rose like 
a Phoenix from her ashes." The long walls which Lysander had 
demolished, with insulting triumphs of music, were rebuilt; and the 
city looked again from the harbor of Piraeus over a sea of which she 
was undisputed queen, b. o. 393. 

332. Death of Thrasybulus. — Thrasybulus was honored with the 
command of the new fleet which Athens had thus most unexpectedly 
received. He sailed first to the Hellespont to re-establish Athenian 
dominion, and, having fortified the several towns upon the Thracian 
coast, proceeded to Byzantium, where he restored the collection- of 
toll from the trade of the Euxine. He had similar success at Chalce- 
don, and, moving thence to Lesbos, reconquered the island, and passed 
the winter there in a safe and commodious harbor. In the spring he 
coasted along among the islands and maritime towns till he came to 
the river Eurymedon, the scene of the double victory of Cimon, to 
demand tribute of the Aspendians. They paid the tax, for they were 
unable to make effectual resistance ; but, exasperated by some excesses 
of the soldiers, they attacked the Athenian camp by night, and killed 
Thrasybulus in his tent. Such was the end of Thrasybulus, a man of 
the highest estimation, and worthy to rank with Aristides and Cimon. 

333. The Peace of Antalcidas. — Meantime the Lacedemonians, 
humbled and distressed, turned their thoughts to a reconciliation with 
Persia. For this purpose they sent Antalcidas, a man who had lived 
long in Asia Minor, to Tiribazus, satrap of Sardis, with proposals of 
peace ; and also directed him to state that Conon had defrauded the 
great king of the money given him to rebuild Athens ; and that he 
had formed the design of driving the Persians out of Eolia and Ionia. 
The other states of Greece, hearing of the negotiation contemplated 
by Sparta, sent each a deputy to secure an equitable adjustment of 

Questions. — 330. How did Pharnabazus respond? 331 How long had Conon been iD 
exile? With what did he return to Athens? Who rebuilt Athens? 3-32. Who com- 
manded the new fleet? What did he accomplish? What became of Thrasybulus? 333. 
What stratagems were used to effect the peace of Antalcidas ? 



208 GREECE. [b.c. 382 

affairs. Conon was the minister from Athens, but no sooner Lad lie 
arrived than Tiribazus, regardless of his sacred character, threw him 
into prison. The other embassadors objected to every article in the 
proposed treaty, and were consequently dismissed without having 
effected any thing, while the crafty satrap, having secured the only 
man he feared, visited Susa to learn the pleasure of the great king. 
Conon, in the absence of his only friend,* pined to death in prison, or 
was privately executed. 

334. Thus deprived of her generals, Athens was not averse to peace ; 
and when Tiribazus, upon his return, summoned a congress of depu- 
ties from all the belligerent states, her ministers were sent with the 
others to listen to proposals for a general pacification. The congress 
being duly opened, Tiribazus produced a writing sealed with the 
king's signet, and read the arbitration, or rather the command, of the 
Persian monarch, in the following words : — " Artaxerxes the king 
holds it just, That all cities on the continent of Asia belong to his 
dominion, together with the islands of Olazomenae and Cyprus ; and 
that all other Grecian cities, little and great, be independent, except 
that the islands of Lemnos, Irnbros, and Sciros remain as of old, under 
the dominion of Athens. If any refuse these terms, against such I 
will join in war with those who accept them, and give my assistance, 
by land and by sea, with ships and with money." 

335. These terms, which destroyed at once all the schemes of con- 
quest which Agesilaus had formed, which wrested from Athens her most 
valuable dependencies, and gave to Persia almost all she had ever 
claimed, were acceded to, either willingly or unwillingly, by all the 
states. Thus peace was established throughout Greece and Asia Minor, 
the fleets were laid up, or employed in friendly commerce, the soldiers 
were dismissed to their homes, and "the land had rest from war." 

336. Olynthian Wak. — The universal quiet which reigned for some 
time after the ratification of this treaty, was interrupted by the arrival 
of persons at Lacedemon, who came to complain that Olynthus, having 
engaged most of the towns of the Chalcidice in a confederaey, had 
nearly expelled Amyntas, king of Macedon, from his government. 
Ministers had passed between Olynthus, and Athens, and Thebes; and 
the complainants represented to the Spartans that a powerful coalition 

* Pharnabazus, who, having married the king's daughter, had removed to Susa. 

Questions. — 333. What became of Conon? 334. Why was not Athens averse to peace? 
"What was done by Tiribazus? What terms did the Persian monarch dictate? 335. What 
is said of the terms? Was the peace honorable to any Grecian state? 336. Where was 
Olynthus? (See map No. 2.) What complaint was made agaiust Olynthus? 



B.C. 379.] DEATH OF AGESIPOLIS. 209 

was forming in that quarter, which would overthrow the supremacy 
of Lacedemon, and destroy the liberties of Greece. A congress of the 
Peloponnesian allies was immediately summoned; the subject laid 
before them in all its political bearings; and a resolution taken to send 
ten thousand men into Macedonia. Such forces as could readily be 
collected, set out immediately. They lost no time in traversing the 
frequented route through Corinth, Megara, Beotia, and Thessaly ; and 
as Potidaaa gladly opened its gates to them, they found comfortable 
quarters to await the other troops. 

337. Thebes seized by Phcebidas. — The remaining division was 
sent off under the command of Phoebidas, who, quitting the line of his 
instructions, set on fire a train of evils which kindled another Pelopon- 
nesian war, and destroyed forever the supremacy of Lacedemon. In 
his inarch northward, he encamped for the night under the walb of 
Thebes. The leader of the aristocratic party in the city found his 
way to the tent of Phoebidas, and invited him to enter the city, seize 
the Cadmeia,* and change the government. This temptation was too 
strong for the virtue of the Spartan. He entered the town by night, 
and took possession by force of arms. The leaders of the democratic 
party were thrown into prison, many of the citizens fled to different 
places, and a band of about four hundred found refuge in Athens. 

338. When an account of this affair was carried to Sparta, the 
ephors fined Phoebidas for turning aside from his duty ; but they sent 
Archias to govern Thebes, and appointed officers as they would for a 
conquered city. The war in Olynthus still went on with various suc- 
cess. No permanent advantage was gained till Agesipolis, the young 
colleague of Agesilaus, was sent thither to take the command. He 
wasted the Olynthiaii territory ; he took Torone by storm ; but in the 
midst of his success he was seized with a fever, which soon terminated 
his life. His body was preserved in honey, and carried the long and 
difficult journey to Sparta, to be interred with the usual ceremonies 
in the tombs of the Spartan kings. Cleombrotus, his brother, suc- 
ceeded him. 

339. But though the Olynthians were thus delivered from their 
most active foe, they were in extreme distress. In resisting the power 
of Lacedemon, they had counted on assistance from Beotia and Attica. 
The unexpected revolution in Thebes had, however, cut off all 

* The citadel of Thebes, named from Cadmus. 

Questions.— 336. What resolution was passed? What route did the forces take? 337. 
What is said of Phoebidas? How was he tempted? 338. What is said of Agesipolis? Bj 
whom ^as he succeeded ? 339. What is said of the condition of the Olynthians? 



210 GREECE. [b. c. 379. 

aid from these sources, and, without losing any decisive buttle, they 
were compelled to surrender, b. o. 379 ; but the new government of 
their city was any thing but grateful to the body of the Theban 
people. 

340. The Counter-Revolution in Thebes. — It happened soon after 
the surrender of Olynthus, that Phyllidas, the secretary of Archias, was 
sent to Athens on business. While there, he fell into conversation 
with a Theban exile, an old friend, and having explained the state of 
things in his native city, began to deplore the miseries which Spartan 
treachery had brought upon his fellow-citizens. The conversation 
resulted in a plot to overthrow the tyranny which Spafta had estab- 
lished in Thebes, and restore again the democratic form of govern- 
ment. It was carried into execution in the following manner : A 
select band of exiles set out from Athens, and, without exciting sus- 
picion, quartered themselves in a little town not far from Thebes. 
Pelopidas and Melon, the leaders, then choosing ten associates, dressed 
themselves like hunters, and beat about the woods with poles and 
hounds, as if in search of game. About night-fall they entered the 
city at diiferent gates, where they were met by their accomplices, and 
conducted to the house of one Charon, a patriot of great wealth and 
respectability. 

341. Phyllidas had performed his part with equal success. He had 
invited Archias and Philip, with the principal Spartan rulers, to his 
house, under promise of introducing them to some of the most beauti- 
ful women in Thebes. Scarcely, however, had the entertainment 
commenced, when a rumor reached them that the exiles were con- 
cealed somewhere in the city, and they sent immediately for Charon. 
The conspirators looked upon themselves as lost ; but the intrepid 
Charon obeyed the summons with alacrity. He replied to the ques- 
tions of the polemarchs in such a manner as entirely lulled their sus- 
picions, and departed with their authority to inquire into the affair. 
Phyllidas then led his guests back to their wine, when a new danger 
threw him into the utmost consternation. A horseman, sent from 
Athens by those who had learned the particulars of the plot, riding in 
hot haste, came up to the door, and dismounting, forced his way into 
the banqueting-room. "My lord," said he, out of breath with the 
speed he had made, "here are letters from a friend of yours, who 
begs you will read them immediately, being serious affairs." — " Serious 

Questions. — 339. When did they surrender? How did they like their new government? 
340. How was the counter-revolution in Thebes commenced? What plot was formed? 
How was it carried into execution? 341. How had Phyllidas performed his part? Cxive 
the pat ticnlars of his movements. 



b. c. 378.] PELOPIDAS AND EPAMINONDAS. 211 

affairs to-morrow," replied Archias, laughing, and thrusting the letters 
under his pillow. 

342. Phyllidas now entered to say that the women were arrived, and 
the tyrants commanding them to be introduced, Charon and his 
friends came in, clothed in female attire, and crowned with garlands. 
The drunken lords received them with shouts of joy; but the pre- 
tended women, having each selected his man, drew their swords, and 
rushed upon them with the greatest fury. They made but a feeble 
resistance, and the conspirators soon issued from the house in triumph. 
Messengers were then sent to bring up their fellows left on the way ; 
the prison doors were thrown open, and five hundred Thebans issued 
from their dungeons to join the ranks of freemen. Criers went up 
and down the streets, calling upon the people to resume their liber- 
ties;, and arms were taken from the shops and distributed to all who 
joined in the cry against Sparta. Epaminondas,* with a few chosen 
followers, joined the conspirators; the houses were filled with torches ; 
the streets were thronged with a multitude who hardly knew what 
had happened, or which side to take; and never was there such a 
night of confusion, anxiety, and hope, in Thebes. 

343. The Lacedemonian garrison in the citadel, though one thou- 
sand five hundred strong, knew not the limited extent of the conspi- 
racy, but, seeing the tumult, set a guard at all the gates of the Cadmea, 
and dispatched a messenger to Sparta for assistance. The next day 
the revolutionists were re-enforced by the arrival of numerous exiles 
and armed cavalry from Athens. An assembly of the people was sum- 
moned, and addressed by Epaminondas, who exhorted all to aid in the 
restoration of the ancient freedom of their city. His appeal was 
answered by loud acclamations and clapping of hands; and Pelopidas, 
Melon, and Charon were unanimously chosen magistrates. The cou- 
rier arrived at Sparta, and told his news. A band of soldiers was 
immediately sent off, but did not reach Thebes in time to interrupt 
the progress of the revolution. The garrison, pressed by famine, had 
already capitulated; and the city of Cadmus was free. Such was the 
commencement of the second Peloponnesian war, which ended in the 
humiliation of Sparta, as the first did in that of Athens. 

* An intimate friend of Pelopidas, who delighted in philosophical studies and the practice 
of every virtue, lie was never known to tell a lie. even in jest. When the Spartans seized 
upon Thebes, Pelopidas fled to Athens ; but Epaminondas, being looked upon as a mere 
philosopher, remained in the city, and did all in his power to inspire the youth with senti- 
ments of bravery. 

Questions. — 342. Give further particulars. Who was Epaminondas? 343. How strong 
was the Lacedemonian garrison in the citadel? What precaution did they take? Did they 
succeed ? What war was thus commenced ? 



212 GREECE. [b. c. 378. 

344. Second Peloponncsian War. — It remained now for the Lace- 
demonian government to punish the rebellion at Thebes, or resign at 
once the supremacy of Greece. The latter thought was not to be tole- 
rated; the former was therefore resolved upon, and though mid-winter, 
the army was ordered to march into Beotia. The grand purpose of Age- 
silaus being to unite the Grecian states in*an attack upon the power of 
Persia, he was extremely averse to this war. The command of the army 
was consequently committed to Cleombrotus, his brother sovereign. 

345. Athens, still unrecovered from the wounds which Sparta had 
inflicted upon herself, and seeing the great preparations making against 
Thebes, scarcely knew which side to take. While she continued thus 
irresolute, Sphodrias, a Spartan general, made an unsuccessful attempt 
to seize upon the Pirasus. This furnished a fine argument for the 
orators in the Beotian interest. They declared that the Lacedemonians 
meant to subvert the liberties of the Athenians, as they had done of 
the Thebans ; and such a storm of invective was raised, that all in 
favor of moderate measures were obliged to hide their heads, while 
war, offensive and defensive, became the popular care. Ships were 
built, soldiers were levied, and every thing prepared to assist Thebes 
in the approaching contest. Meanwhile, the Beotian lands were 
ravaged by the Peloponnesian forces, and Thebes suffered almost 
famine from the repeated destruction of her harvests. 

346. It would require too much space to detail all the petty skir- 
mishes, political intrigues, and short-lived factions, which occurred 
during the seven years that followed the attack of Sphodrias upon the 
Piraeus. Athens, intimidated by the mighty army which passed through 
her borders to Beotia, renounced the alliance of Thebes, and assumed 
as nearly as possible a neutral position. But during all this time the 
Thebans had been learning the art of war, inuring their bodies to 
labor, and acquiring both experience and courage in their various 
encounters with the Spartans. The Sacred Theban Band, or band of 
lovers, consisting of three hundred youths, bound together by the ties 
of friendship, and all sworn to die side by side rather than fly before 
an enemy, had been trained by Pelopidas, and inspired with an ardent 
desire to establish the liberty of their country. Pelopidas, indeed, 
was never idle. From the day that he was chosen general to the 
day of his death, he was always engaged in some public employ- 

Questions.—34A. What remained for the Lacedemonian government? Why was Agesi- 
lans averse to the war? To whom was given the command of the army? Why? 345. 
About what was Athens irresolute ? How was a decision at last made ? 346. Why was the 
decision altered ? What had the Thebans been about? Who instituted the Sacred Theban 
Band ? What was the Band ? What is said of Pelopidas ? 



B. c. 371.J PELOPIDAS AND EPAMINONDAS. 213 

ment, either as captain of the Sacred Band, or as governor of 
Thebes. 

347. b. o. 371. — Battle of Leuctra. — The Lacedemonians, having 
made peace with all the other Grecian states, determined to strike a 
decisive blow in Beotia. Cleombrotus was therefore sent thither, witl> 
10,000 foot and 1,000 horse, and other troops joined them on the way, 
till his army swelled to 20,000. Epaminondas, who was at that time 
commander-in-chief of the Theban forces, could bring only 6,000 men 
into the field; but as universal terror of the Spartans forbade the hope 
of gaining any allies, he and his friend Pelopidas decided to join battle 
with their enemies. Having taken their resolution, they strengthened 
the hopes of their army with all the favorable omens and prognostica- 
tions they could put in circulation ; and thus, strong in the confidence 
that the fates were propitious, the troops advanced joyfully to Leuctra. 

348. Epaminondas, being unable to oppose front to front and man 
to man in the battle, placed his men in the shape of a wedge, and 
made his attack directly upon the point where Cleombrotus was sta- 
tioned. The enemy, perceiving this, began to extend the right wing to 
surround the Thebans ; but Pelopidas coming up just at the moment, 
with his three hundred invincibles, threw them into disorder, and 
completely frustrated their design. The consequence was, such a rout 
and slaughter as never had been known before. Cleombrotus was 
carried from the field mortally wounded. The Lacedemonians lost 
4,000 men, and then fled to their intrenchments. The Thebans had 
only 300 men killed. They erected a trophy upon the spot, which 
was esteemed the most glorious and most important ever won in a 
battle of Greeks with Greeks. When Epaminondas was congratu- 
lated upon his most unparalleled victory, he replied, " I think only of 
the happiness it will give my mother." 

349. The news of this defeat reached Sparta while the people were 
engaged in the celebration of public games. The ephors, to whom the 
dispatches were delivered, without interrupting the entertainment, 
communicated the names of the slain to their relatives, but forbade 
the women to make the clamorous lamentations common on such 
occasions. Next day the parents of those who had fallen in the battle 
went to the temples to thank the gods for the glory their sons had 
acquired, while those whose children still survived were overwhelmed 
with the deepest affliction. The law also augmented their misery. 

Question*.— Ml. When was the battle of Leuctra fought? How many men did Cleom- 
»rotus command? How many Epaminondas? 348. Give an account of the battle. What 
reply did Epaminondas make to those who congratulated him? 349. How did the Spartans 
receive the news of this defeat ? Where was Leuctra? (See map No. 2.) 



214 GREECE. [b. c. 370. 

Those who fled from the field were to be degraded, so that it would be 
a disgrace to intermarry with them ; they were compelled to wear 
patched and party-colored mean and dirty garments, to go half shaved, 
and suffer every insult and abuse. Such numbers had incurred these 
severe penalties that a public commotion was feared ; besides, these 
soldiers could ill be spared at a time when it was necessary to recruit 
the army. In this distressing emergency, the whole power was placed 
in the hands of Agesilaus. He made a decree that the law should lie 
dormant for one day, and thus the citizens were saved from infamy. 

350. Invasion of Peloponnesus. — Nor was it long before Sparta 
needed all her soldiers to protect her own territory. Numbers of 
Greek cities, before neutral, mad.e alliance with Thebes, and Epami- 
nondas soon saw himself at the head of 70,000 men. With this over- 
whelming force he invaded Peloponnesus. It was 700 years since the 
Dorians established themselves in Laconia, and in all that time their 
country had never been invaded by a hostile army. Agesilaus had 
often boasted that •' no woman of Sparta had ever seen the smoke of 
an enemy's camp;" how deep, then, was his mortification when 70,000 
men crossed the Eurotas, captured several Lacedemonian towns, and 
ravaged all the lands to the sea; pitching their tents in whatevci spot 
they chose, and spreading themselves over the country "like giass- 
hoppers for multitude." 

351. Nor was this all. The Thebans published a decree recalling 
the Messenians to their ancient inheritance. They came iiora ithe- 
gium, from Sicily, from Naupactus, and from all places wneic mey had 
taken refuge in the dark day of adversity. The Thebauy ana their 
allies exerted themselves with such zeal in the rebuilding and fortify- 
ing of Ithome, that the city was completed in eighty-five days. The 
entrance of the Messenians to the home of their fathers was attended 
with pomp and ceremony, and solemn sacrifices. Amid all their wan- 
derings and desolations, they had retained their laws, religion, and 
language; and now, regaining their place among the nations of the 
earth, they took possession of the lands from which their forefathers 
had been banished two hundred and eighty-seven years befoifc, with 
the proud consciousness that they were able to defend them even 
against the power of Sparta. Thus the province of Messenia 7 amount- 
ing to half her territory, was lost to Lacedemon forever. 



Questions. — 349. What power was given to Agesilaus? How did be jjo it? Traco 
Cleombrotus from Sparta to Leuctra. 350. Who invaded Peloponnesus? Whnt boas* had 
Agesilaus made? How then was he mortified? 351. What people were recalled to their 
Rneieut inheritance? Give an account of their returning. What IjSS did Lacedemon thus 
sustain"? Whcie was Ituume? (See map No. 2.) 



B. c. 368.J EPAMINONDAS. 215 

352. On their return from this expedition, Epaminondas and Pelo- 
pidas were brought to trial for having retained their authority four 
months beyond the time prescribed by law. Pelopidas condescended 
to beg his life of the people, but Epaminondas boldly defended the 
course he had taken, and made such an eloquent appeal to the feelings 
of his judges that he returned from the place of trial with more glory 
than from the field of Leuctra. 

353. Political Affairs. — During the next five years, these two 
illustrious generals passed through great varieties of fortune. In the 
year b. c. 3(58, the Thebans again invaded Peloponnesus, but not being 
so successful as before, he was degraded to the rank of a private sol- 
dier, in which capacity he marched with the army into Thessaly. Here 
the Thebans were reduced to the greatest distress, and again had 
recourse to the wisdom of Epaminondas, who, being made general, 
effected their retreat in safety. Two years after, he led an army into 
Achaia, and brought the whole confederation into the Theban alliance. 
Pelopidas was sent over to Asia Minor to contract an alliance with the 
great king. Artaxerxes rejoiced to see him, and loaded him with 
honors ; confirmed the restoration of Messenia, and reckoned the The- 
bans among his hereditary friends. 

354. Upon his return, Pelopidas, being sent against Alexander, a 
Thessalian tyrant, was slain in battle, and Epaminondas was left alone 
to guide the helm of the Theban state. It was an arduous task. The 
Grecian states began to perceive that Thebes was merely endeavoring 
to wrest from Sparta that supremacy which Sparta had wrested from 
Athens. It was at best but a change of masters that they had gained, 
and, disappointed of liberty, they began to incline again to aristocracy. 
Athens on her part became jealous of the rising glory of Thebes. If 
she must have a rival, she preferred that that rival should be in Pelo- 
ponnesus rather than in Hellas ; accordingly, she forsook the alliance 
of the city she had helped to elevate, and gave her friendship to her 
ancient enemy, Sparta. 

355. The Arcadians invaded Elis and plundered Olympia, which 
sacrilegious act tore open again the unhealed wounds of civil discord. 
As Sparta seemed to take the part of the plunderers, they made pro- 
posals for a renewal of the former alliance, upon which the Theban 

Question*.— 3b2. What charge was brought against Epaminondas and Pelopidas? How 
were they saved ? 353. When did Epaminondas again invade Peloponnesus? With what 
success? What was the consequence to him? How did he regain position ? What suc- 
cesses attended the exertions of Pelopidas in Asia Minor? 354. What further can you state 
of him? What did the Grecian states soon perceive? Why did Athens forsake Thebes? 
355. Which state did the Arcadians invade? Give an account of what followed. How was 
Elis situated? (See map No. 2.) Olympia? 



216 GREECE. [b. c. 362. 

minister at Mantinea imprisoned eome of the principal citizens for 
treason. Messengers were immediately sent to Thebes to complain of 
his conduct. Epaminondas told the deputies that the Theban minister 
had done well when he seized the Arcadians, for the Thebans invaded 
Peloponnesus the first time only to benefit Arcadia, and that any pro- 
posal of peace on their part was treason to Thebes. " Be assured, 
therefore," he added, " we will march into Arcadia, and with our 
numerous friends there prosecute the war." 

356. The return of the embassadors with this answer put all Pelo 
ponnesus in a ferment. Each state felt indignant for itself in particu- 
lar, and for Peloponnesus in general, that Thebes, a power just risen, 
should presume to command war for them in their own peninsula 
when they desired peace ; and, what was worse, should dare to march 
an army into their territory to enforce such a command. Arcadia, 
Elis, and Achaia composed their difficulties as soon as possible ; made 
alliance with Lacedemon in the common cause, and messengers were 
sent to Athens for aid in resisting the growing power of Thebes. 

357. Battle of Mantinea. — To overthrow this confederacy, and 
punish the defection of his former allies, Epaminondas invaded the 
Peloponnesus for the fourth time, b. o. 362. He had under his com- 
mand the effective force of all the Beotian towns, and numerous auxili- 
aries from Thessaly and Locris. On his entrance into the Pelopon- 
nesus, all the disaffected joined his army; and the Messenians, who 
looked upon him as the restorer and champion of their country, flocked 
to his standard, so that his troops greatly outnumbered those of the 
enemy. 

358. The combined forces of Peloponnesus were encamped at Man- 
tinea, and Epaminondas, hearing that Sparta had been left unprotected, 
directed his march thither ; and, but for intelligence conveyed to Age- 
silaus by a Cretan, the city would have been taken, says the historian, 
"like a bird's nest destitute of defenders." Agesilaus, upon hearing 
that the Thebans were coming down the mountain road, put himself 
at the head of his troops, and, marching with great rapidity, reached 
the place before them. They now felt the truth of Lycurgus's declara- 
tion, that " that city is well defended which has a wall of men instead 
of brick." It was impossible to take a place where every man fought 
for his own hearthstone; and Epaminondas reluctantly gave orders 
to withdraw after a severe skirmish, in which numbers were slain. 

Questio7is.—So6. What consequences followed the invasion? 357. For what purpose did 
Epaminondas invade Peloponnesus a fourth time? In what year was this invasion? 
What army did Epaminondas then have? 358. How was Mantinea situated? (See map 
No. 2.) How was Sparta saved by Agesilaus? What remark of Lycurgus is quoted? 



b. c. 302.] EPAMINONDAS. 9t? 

359. Failing in this project, ho immediately conceived another of 
equal importance. It was summer, and thinking the Mantineans 
would be engaged in gathering in their harvest, he sent his cavalry for- 
ward to intercept the convoys and capture the laborers. This plan, 
too, failed by an unexpected occurrence. The cavalry traversed the 
lofty mountain barrier of Lacedemon without accident, and found, as 
they anticipated, the slaves, cattle, and citizens of Mantinea at work 
in their fields. A body of Athenian horse had just arrived, and were 
waiting for refreshment after a forced march of two days. When the 
Mantiueans saw the Thebans approaching, they quitted their labor in 
the utmost alarm, and besought the Athenians to remount, weary as 
they were, and fly to the rescue. They immediately complied, and, 
jealous for the glory of their country, spurred their jaded steeds to 
the scene of pillage, and engaged, at fearful odds, with the renowned 
Thessalian and Theban cavalry. Brave men fell on both sides ; but 
the enemy were finally repulsed, and the Athenians brought off their 
allies in safety, with all their property. 

360. Epaminondas now found it necessary to give battle. With the 
aid of a skillful general, he ranged his troops in the order in which ho 
intended to fight, and caused them to march in a column upon the 
hills, until within about a mile of Mantinea, where they halted and 
laid down their arms, as if preparing to encamp. Deceived by this 
movement, the enemy quitted their ranks and dispersed themselves 
about the camp, wherever interest or curiosity led them. Suddenly 
the Thebans resumed their arms, and marched directly towards Man- 
tinea. Their approach threw the Peloponnesians into the utmost con- 
fusion. Some were running here, and some there; some buckling on 
their breastplates, and some bridling their horses; and they were 
hardly in their places when the Thebans commenced the action. The 
battle began with the cavalry. The troops fought on both sides with 
the greatest bravery. Epaminondas, at the head of his chosen sol- 
diers, charged the Lacedemonian phalanx. They commenced with 
=pears, but these being soon broken, they drew their swords and 
fought hand to hand, trampling alike on the prostrate bodies of friends 
and foes. 

361. The Theban cavalry had put the Athenians to flight, but still 
the Lacedemonians had not yielded an inch of ground. Seeing the 
necessity of deciding the battle before the enemy could rally, Epami- 
nondas formed a little troop of his bravest soldiers, and charged the 

Questions. — 359. In what 8««ond project did Epaminondas fail ? Give an account of it 
3G0, 361. Give an account of the battle of Mantinea. 
10 



GREECE. [B.C. 362. 

center of the enemy's line. He wounded the Lacedemonian general 
with the first javelin he threw, and finally broke the phalanx; but as 
he pressed on to the victory, he received a wound in his breast.* The 
wood of the javelin broke off, and the iron head remaining in the 
wound, he sank down in mortal agony. The contest around hiro was 
frightful ; but the Thebans finally prevailed, and carried their wounded 
general off the field. Both sides then rested upon their arms, and the 
trumpets, as if by common consent, sounded a retreat at the same 
moment. Both parties claimed the victory, and erected a trophy ; but 
the Lacedemonians finally begged permission to bury the dead, which 
was in effect confessing a defeat. 

362. Epaminondas was carried into the camp. The surgeons ex- 
amined his wound, and declared that his death would immediately 
follow the extraction of the dart. These words filled all about him 
with the deepest distress. His friends lamenting that he left no pos- 
terity, he said, " Yes, I have left two fair daughters, the victory of 
Leuctra and this of Mantinea, to perpetuate my memory." Soon 
after, the javelin was extracted, and he expired, exclaiming, "All is 
well." 

363. Xenophon remarks upon this victory : " Universal expectation 
was strangely deceived in the event of this battle. Almost all Greece 
being met in arms, there was nobody who did not suppose that the 
victors would in future command, and the defeated must obey. But 
God decided otherwise. Each party claimed the victory, and neither 
gained any advantage ; territory or dominion was acquired by neither ; 
but indecision, and trouble, and confusion, more than ever before that 
battle, pervaded Greece." Wearied, then, with the sad history of his 
country's woes, which from youth to age he had chronicled, he thus 
concludes his narrative : "Thus far suffice it for me to have related. 
The following events, perhaps, will interest some other writer."! 

* The fatal dart was thrown by the hand of Gryllus, son of Xenophon. 

t "It is impossible," remarks a distinguished historian, '-for the compiler of Grecian 
history not to feel a peculiar interest in the fortunes of the soldier-philosopher-author, who 
has been his conductor through a period of half a century, amid transactions in which he 
was himself an actor:" and it is hoped that the student also will be interested in reading a 
short account of the life of Xenophon. His father was an Athenian of rank and affluence. 
In early life, he was the pupil and friend of the great Socrates. At the solicitation of Proxe- 
nns, nn/1 by the advice of the oracle, he enlisted in the army of young Cyrus. He was pre- 
sent at the battle of Cunaxa, and was the chief instrument in effecting the retreat of the 
famous " Ten Thousand." During his absence. Socrates was executed ; and upon his return, 
he found that the same party had procured a decree of banishment for himself. Thus pre- 
vented from visiting his native city, he joined the army of Agesilaus in Asia Minor, and 

Questio)is.—S61. What befell Epaminondas? 862. Give an account of the death of Epam« 
inoudics. oJo. What are the remarks of Xenophon upon this victory ? 



B. c. 3G1.J DEATH OF AGESILAUS. 219 

364. After the death of Epaminondas, with which Xenophon's nar- 
rative closes, no regular historian took up the tangled thread of Gre- 
cian affairs; we are therefore indebted to a class resembling modern 
news-writers for the documents which enabled Diodorus Siculus to 
compile his history, and Plutarch to write his "Lives." From them, 
It appears that the battle of Mantinea was followed by a general peace, 
during which the armies on both sides were disbanded, and the troops 
permitted to return quietly to their homes. 

365. Agesilaus. — Agesilaus, who began to reign when Sparta was 
in her glory, and who had indulged the ambitious hope of humbling 
the power of Persia, could not be pleased with the posture of affairs. 
Within his memory, Lacedemon had lost the alliance of the Greek 
cities in Asia Minor and the Egean ; the friendship and money of the 
Persian king; the fertile province of Messenia; and, what he valued 
still more, the lofty position of supreme lord of the confederated Greek 
nation. He could not rest upon his humiliated throne. It was with 
joy, therefore, that he accepted the invitation of an Egyptian prince 
to assist him in throwing off the yoke of Persia. Upon his arrival in 
Egypt, all the officers of the kingdom came to pay their court to him ; 
but what was their surprise, to find in the person of the great Agesi- 
laus only a little lame old man, in a plain Spartan cloak, seated on the 
grass, amid a company of rude soldiers. When, however, he changed 
his politics, and instead of assisting Tachos, who had invited him thi- 
ther, joined the standard of Nectanabis, they learned to fear rather 
than deride him. Having placed Nectanabis. upon the throne, and 
received immense rewards for his services, he sailed for home in mid- 
winter, determined to use his money in recovering the lost Messenia, 
b. c. 361. He died on the voyage; and his body, embalmed in wax, 

acquired considerable wealth in those campaigns. He returned with this king to Lace- 
demon, and exchanged his military life for more peaceful occupations. The Lacedemonians 
gave him the little, town of Scillus, on the borders of Elis, to hold under their supervision 
as a lordship ; and there he settled with his family, consisting of a wife and two sons. With 
the money he had saved, he purchased an extensive tract of land, upon which he erected a 
temple to Diana. This place, about twenty-five miles from Olympia, where every four 
years he might see such friends as he chose, formed an appropriate residence for the illus- 
trious Athenian refugee. Here he wrote the Life of Cyrus, the Memorables of Socrates, 
and a continuation of Thucydides' great history. When the Arcadians made Sacred Olym- 
pia the seat of war, finding his residence at Scillus unsafe, he removed to Corinth. Though 
a decree had been passed inviting his return to Athens, yet an absence of thirty years had 
so weakened his attachment to his native country that he chose to remain upon the isth- 
mus, where he passed in dignified ease the remainder of a life protracted beyond his ninetieth 
year. His son Gryllus was killed in the battle of Mantinea; and of the other, no further 
mention is made. 

Que.stio?is.— 364. What condition of things followed the battle of Mantinea? 365. What 
is said of Agesilaus? What invitation did he accept? At what were the Egyptians sur- 
prised. Why diil they afterward fear? When did Agesilaus die? Where was he then ? 



220 GREECE. [b c. 361 

was taken to Sparta for burial. He lived eighty-four years, of which 
he reigned forty-one. He was succeeded by his son, Archidamus. 

366. Tiiebes and Athens. — The glorious victory of Mantinea, won 
by Thebans, proved to no other state so disastrous as to Thebes her- 
self. The loss of Epaminondas could not be repaired ; the sun of his 
country's glory set when he expired ; and though Thebes did not 
become lost in obscurity, she ruled no more. Athens might have held 
the balance of power for the Grecian republic, but she could not bear 
prosperity. Long before, Solon's laws for encouraging industry and 
punishing idleness had ceased to be regarded. " A sovereign multi- 
tude, who could vote the rich into banishment and appropriate their 
estates to the good of the public, would not work." To them it was 
far more agreeable to live upon the sacrifices provided by the treasury 
of the state ; to feast at the tables of the demagogues who courted 
their favor; to spend their time in bathing, or walking in the sacred 
groves; in listening to the discourse of philosophers, applauding the 
eloquence of orators, or in witnessing those theatrical entertainments 
with which Athens was so well supplied, and of which every Athenian 
was so immoderately fond. 

367. The fleet of Athens still rode triumphant over the Egean ; the 
islands were her tributaries, and she had vast possessions in Thrace ; 
but these appearances of prosperity were like the mistletoe which 
crowns with parasitic greenness the decaying monarch of the forest. 
Athens was dead at heart. The unnatural pulsations which had put 
forward one great man after another to meet the exigencies of her cir- 
cumstances, had weakened her energies and destroyed her vitality. 
The measures of her government were fluctuating and uncertain ; the 
public voice became the organ of tyranny ; and the decrees of one day 
were rendered powerless by the decisions of the next. But her glory 
could not die. That very freedom which made her the prey of faction 
awakened every latent spark of genius in her people ; the very defects 
of her government roused every slumbering energy of the gifted and 
ambitious ; hence it was, that the brightest galaxy of philosophers and 
orators illumined the night of her political degradation. 

368. Plato, the most celebrated philosopher of Athens, a descendant 
of Solon, was born atJEgina, b. c. 428. He was called Plato, " broad," 
from the shape of his forehead. He had a lively fancy, and when quite 
young composed several dramatic pieces; but happening to hear 
Socrates in conversation, he abandoned poetry, and turned his atten- 

Quextions. — What else can you say of him ? 366. What is said of Thebes? Of Athens? 
867. Of the fleet of Athens ? Of the condition of Athens ? Of her glory? 368. When was 
Plato born ? What was he called ? Why ? Give an account of his early life. 



B.C. 361.] PLATO AND ISOCRATES. 221 

tion to philosophy. He was twenty years of age when this occurred, 
and he continued the disciple of that philosopher till Socrates fell a 
victim to the violence of the times. Plato attempted to plead for the 
life of his master, but was prevented by the judges ; he then presented 
him with money sufficient to redeem his life, which Socrates refused 
to accept; but he enjoyed the melancholy satisfaction of attending him 
in prison, where he gathered from the conversation of his beloved 
instructor the substance of his most admired composition, Phsedo-- 
'•Concerning the Soul. 1 ' In this dialogue, Socrates is represented as 
proving the immortality of the soul by its spirituality, the objects to 
which it naturally adheres being spiritual and incorruptible. 

369. After the death of his master, Plato spent some years in travel- 
ing through Italy, Cyrenaica, and Egypt. In Sicily he worsted Dio- 
nysius the tyrant in an argument, and was in consequence sold into 
slavery. His friends and scholars raised money for his ransom, but his 
noble-minded master gave him his liberty, and with the sum contri 
buted, purchased for him a garden in the groves of Academus. Here 
the philosopher founded the celebrated Academy, where he taught the 
gifted and high-born youth, who came from all parts of Greece to 
listen to his instructions. He lived to a good old age, enriching his 
country and the world with numerous philosophical works, adorned 
with the chaste beauties of the Attic tongue, and enlivened with all 
the graces of a brilliant imagination. The grove and garden which 
had been the scene of his labors at last afforded him a sepulchre. 
Statues and altars were erected to his memory, and his portrait was 
preserved in gems ; but the living image of his mind may be seen in 
his writings, stamped with the impress of immortality. 

Note.— Isocrates was born at Athens, b. c. 436. He was the companion of Plato in the 
school of Socrates; and after the execution of his master, was the only person who had cou- 
rage to put on mourning. He was teacher of an oratorical school, and charged about $1S0 
for a complete course of instruction. He was a friend of peace, and kept up a correspond- 
ence with Philip, urging upon him the policy and propriety of bringing all Greece into a 
confederacy against Persia. After the battle of Cheroneia, he refused to take food for seve- 
ral days, and thus closed his long and honorable career, at the age of 9S. 

Only twenty-one of his orations are now extant. One of these is said to have occupied 
him ten years. 

Questions.— 369. What further can you say of him ? Of the honors paid to his memory ! 



9QQ GREECE. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAG3 

1. Give tne early history of Greece 97,98 

2. Give an account of the Trojan war 99 ; 100, 101 

3. Of the Olympic and other games 102, 103, 104, 108 

4. Of Lycurgus and his laws 104-108 

5. Of the first and second Messenian wars 109-112 

6. Of Solon and his laws 115-119, 199, 220, 339 

7. Of the Pisistratidae 120-124 

8. Of the battle of Marathon and its consequences 129, 130 

9. Of affairs till the invasion by Xerxes 130-137 

10. Of Leonidas and the battle of Thermopylae 136-139 

11. Of the battle of Salamis and its consequences 141-143 

1 2. Of Mardonius's operations and death 143-148 

13. What success did Xanthippus and Leotychidas have? 149, 150 

14. What success did Themistocles have? 132-143, 151-156 

15. Give an account of Pausanias 126, 145-155 

16. Give an account of Cimon's operations 156-162 

17. Of the contest between Pericles and Thucydides 162-174 

18. Of the first Peloponnesian war 167-174 

19. Of the battle of Amphipolis and its consequences 174 

20. Of Alcibiades and his operations 175-198 

21. Give the closing account of the Peloponnesian war 195-197 

22. Give an account of Nicias and his operations. . .*. 172-183 

23. Give the history of the "Four Hundred" 185, 186 

24. Give the early account of Lysander 74, 190-192 

25. Give the subsequent account of him 193-205 

26. Give an account of Conon 192-208 

27. Of the battle of Arginusae and consequences 192, 193 

28. Of the battle of iEgos Potamos and consequences 193-196 

29. Of the siege of Athens and results 196, 197 

30. Give the history of the "Thirty Tyrants" 197-199 

31. Give an account of Socrates 79, 175, 193-201, 220, 221 

32. Of the " Retreat of the Ten Thousand " 78-81, 201, 202 

33. Give an account of Agesilaus 126, 202-219 

34. Of Thrasybulus and his operations 192-207 

35. Of the Olynthian war 208-210 

36. Name the events in the second Peloponnesian war 212-219 

37. Give an account of Epaminondas's successes 211-220 

38. Give the biography of Plato 198-221 

39. Describe the battle of Mantinea 216 

40. What was the condition of Greece then ? 218-220 



MACEDONIA 



1. Thus leaving Sparta, Thebes, and Athens, to act the inferior part 
to which their own factions condemned them, let us turn to greet with 
becoming attention a new hero of the Grecian drama. 



Amyntas, king when Darius invaded Europe, b^o. 
Alexander, envoy of Mardonius. See page 145. 
Perdiccas, b. o. 414. 



4~| Archelaus made fortifications, formed roads, &c. 
Amyntas disturbed by the Olynthian war. 

Alexander II. 
3J Perdiccas. 

Philip the Great. 

Alexander III., the Great. 
Aridffius 

Hercules. 

Alexander, child of Roxana. 

The Macedonians claimed their descent from Hercules, and therefore 
had a kindred feeling with all the Dorian brotherhood ; but as they 
were far inferior to the other states in civilization, they made little 
figure in history until the year b. o. 359, when the crown devolved 
upon Philip, only surviving son of Amyntas. 

2. This youth, in the troubles arising from a disputed succession, 




QueMiom. -Macedonia.-!. When did Macedonia come into political notice ? Who wa 
Philln? 



224 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [a c. 359. 

had been taken by Pelopidas as a hostage to Thebes, where he received 
a military and philosophical education in the house of Epaminondas, 
and no doubt witnessed a refinement unknown in his brother's court. 
Upon ascending the throne, Philip found himself in the most perilous 
circumstances. The Illyrians, who had slain his brother Perdiccas, 
were plundering his country on the west; the Paeonians were engaged 
in the same enterprise on the north ; Pausanias, a Lacedemonian, put- 
ting forward a claim to the throne, united with the Thracians, and 
invaded Macedonia from the east; the Athenians sent out a fleet to 
vindicate their right to Amphipolis, on the south ; and Argaaus, a rival 
of his brother's, raised a party among the nobles, and assailed him in 
his very court. 

3. Fortunately, he was well qualified by nature and education 
to meet the exigencies in which he was placed. He was eloquent, 
shrewd, and courageous ; but choosing to negotiate rather than fight, 
he permitted the Illyrian savages to carry off their plunder unmo- 
lested, knowing that the enjoyment of it would prevent another 
immediate incursion. He bought off the Paeonian chiefs; and by the 
powerful eloquence of gold, convinced the Thracian king of the injus- 
tice of Pausanias's claims. He withdrew his troops from Amphipolis, 
and sent home the Athenian prisoners he had taken, with proposals of 
peace ; and, attacking Argaeus, killed him in battle, and quelled the 
insurrection of his rude nobles. 

4. The Athenians, won by his generous policy, concluded a treaty 
of peace and alliance with Macedonia; and "thus," says the historian, 
" this young prince, called to a throne nearly overwhelmed by two 
foreign enemies, attacked by a third, threatened by & fourth, and con- 
tested by two pretenders, before the end of the third summer, had 
overcome these threatening evils not only, but had acquired new 
dominion and new security." 

5. Athenian Policy. — After the battle of Leuctra, Olynthus again 
asserted her independence, and now joining with Amphipolis, who had 
thrown off the yoke of Athens, threatened Macedon itself. Philip of 
course united with the Athenians, to put down the rising powers. A 
Macedonian army besieged Potidaea by land, while an Athenian fleet 
blocked it up by sea. The city, thus closely invested, soon surren- 
dered, and received an Athenian garrison. Torone shared the same 

Questions. — 2. Where was Philip educated ? What difficulties surrounded him as the king 
of Macedon? 3. What were his three principal characteristics? What did he gain by means 
of gold? What else did he gain ? 4. By what policy did he make friends of hostile eneimYs ? 
5 Where was Olynthus? (See map No. 2.) Amphipolis? Potidaea? Torone? Methone ? 
Pvdna ? What convulsions agitated Athens and Macedon ? 



b. c. 353.] PHILIP THE GREAT. 225 

fate shortly after, and Methone acknowledged the sovereignty of 
Athens ; but this grasping power, emboldened by success, seized also 
upon Pydna, the only remaining seaport in Macedonia. Philip sent 
deputies to Athens to complain of this violation of the public faith, but 
his remonstrance was unheeded. Demosthenes,* who saw a mighty 
rival in the Macedonian king, advocated every measure calculated to 
cripple his power, and extend the supremacy of Athens. 

6. As the Athenians, after the seizure of Pydna, could expect nc 
further assistance from Philip, they withdrew their forces from Olyn- 
thus, and laid siege to Amphipolis upon their own behalf. By tht 
dexterous management of Oharidemus, a native of Eubcea, in Athenian 
pay, Amphipolis was induced to surrender, and thus Athens possessed 
all the maritime towns of Macedonia and Thrace. Demosthenes did. 
not overrate the importance of this conquest when he said, " Whik 
the Athenians hold Potidiea and Amphipolis, the king of MacedoL 
cannot be safe in his own house." 

7. Philip's Alliance with Olynthus. — But Philip knew his owe 
interest far too well to leave the Athenians in quiet possession of 

* This illustrious orator and statesman was born at Athens, b. c. 382. H'j --v.*?. left an 
orphan heir to a large estate at the age of seven. His first appearance of. r r oj).c speaker 
was in the prosecution of his guardians for embezzling his estate. The *a*.t*.oo < t his caur/i, 
rather than the eloquence of his diction, gave him success. Inde^, i*" '/ps only by tho 
most untiring industry and perseverance that he acquired the art of o\»'u>ej. He had a 
stammering in his speech, which he remedied by declaiming wit j rebb'e'j in his mouth. 
He had a weak and eifeminate voice, which he strengthened by p.MoupoMg orations upon 
the sea-shore. He had also an awkward habit of shrugging one purJoVr, which he corrected 
by suspending a sword over it; and he practiced before a l'X J i'.ir,-<;.iass to overcome the 
grimaces which accompanied his utterance. He constructed a ?o,e» under ground, where 
he studied for months together, shaving one side of his hf/xJ. thy.; shame might prevent a 
wish to go abroad. In this solitary retreat, by the light of a 'airp, he copied and re-copied 
ten times all the orations recorded in Thucydides's great hnfvry, and acquired a style so pure 
and forcible, that mankind have by common consent yielded t.> him the palm of unrivaled 
excellence in oratory. The theme, the time, and the thealsr of his orations contributed not 
a little to his success. Liberty, or the ascendency of Athenian democracy, awakened for 
him a sustaining and cheering response in every Athenian breast; hope and fear lent 
him their powerful interest in those thrilling moments when Athens seemed about to gain 
every thing, or to lose all ; and never was orator surrounded with scenes so rich in imagery, 
and so capable of furnishing him with all that was heart-stirring and exciting in appeal, as 
was Demosthenes, when with one hand he could direct the eye to every spot made sacred 
by trophies of Athenian valor, and with the other point to the rising glory of Macedon, 
before which the city of Minerva was destined to suffer a final eclipse. His Olynthian ora- 
tions, his four Philippics, viewed as pictures of the political state of Greece, or as specimens 
of oratory, are incomparably interesting and beautiful. The whole Athenian people were 
swayed by the breath of his eloquence, and Philip used to say that he feared him more than 
all the fleets and armies of Athens, and that " he had no enemy but Demosthenes." 

Questions. — 5. Who was Demosthenes? 6. State how Athens acquired possession of all 
the maritime towns of Macedonia and Thrace. How did Demosthenes estimate the impor- 
tance of the Athenian conquest? 
1 1.'* 



22G GREECE- MACEDONIA. [b. c. 358. 

Methone, Pydna, Araphipolis, and Pot'daea. He also changed his 
ground, and formed an alliance with the Olynthians, for the express 
purpose of driviDg the Athenians entirely from the shores of Mace- 
donia. The Athenians were taken by surprise. They had counted on 
the ancient enmity between Olynthus and Macedon, to prevent a coali- 
tion of this kind. They found they had counted in vain. They made 
overtures of peace, which were rejected, and in spite of all their efforts 
the combined forces of their enemies laid siege to Amphipolis. The 
city was taken by assault ; and Philip, entering it sword in hand, dis- 
played his mercy as a conqueror, and his merit as a statesman. He 
banished only the most factious citizens, dismissed all prisoners of war 
without ransom, and treated with particular attention all those who 
had espoused his cause. After securing quiet possession of this impor- 
tant post, the allied armies marched to Pydna. There was a strong 
Macedonian party in the town, and no sooner did Philip appear in 
arms before it, than the gates were opened to receive him. 

8. Potidasa stood next upon the list. The town's people, consisting 
of Macedonians and Olynthians, hearing of the approach of their 
friends, rose against the Athenian garrison, forced them to retire into 
the citadel, and threw open the gates with every demonstration of joy. 
Philip released the Athenian prisoners, and furnished them with means 
of returning home (that being the most direct method of opposing De- 
mosthenes), and then turned his attention to the improvement of his 
revenue. Not far from Amphipolis were the gold mines of Crenidae. 
They had been wrought by the neighboring inhabitants till the subter 
ranean waters had filled up the veins, and rendered them nearly use 
less. With great labor and expense, Philip constructed machines for 
draining these mines, and finally succeeded in gaining from them about 
$1,000,000, yearly. He provided for the protection of the people 
against their barbarian neighbors, and, in pledge of future attention, 
named the place Philip?) L 

9. Alliance with Thessa.lt and Epirus. — The next spring, Philip 
was called to settle affairs in Thessaly. His father had owed his 
throne to the attachment of the Thessalians, and his brother had also 
been in alliance with the nobles of that country. Now, when two 
tyrant brothers had seized upon their liberties, the people looked to 
Philip as the person who might deliver them from their oppressors, 

Questions. — 7. What four cities did Athens and Macedon quarrel for? What alliance did 
Philip make? For what purpose did he make it? Why were the Athenians then sur- 
prised ? Give an account of Philip's success at Amphipolis. At Pydna. S. At Potidtea. 
Relate the origin of Philippi. 9. Give some account of Philip's alliance with Thessaly and 
Epirus. Whom did Philip many 



B. C. 357.] PHILIP THE GREAT. 227 

without subjecting them to a severer yoke. The result of this embassy 
is given in the following words: "Philip, marching into Thessaly, 
defeated the tyrants, and acquiring thus freedom for the cities, he 
showed a liberality which so attached the Thessalians, that in all his 
following wars and political contests they were his zealous assistants, 
and continued such afterward to his son." After his return from this 
successful expedition, he married Olympia, a princess of Epirus, de- 
scended from the hero Achilles. The magnificence with which their 
nuptials were celebrated, formed the theme of many ancient writers. 
From that time, the Macedonian court became distinguished for ita 
elegance and splendor, and the greatest resort of refined society in the 
world. 

10. The Saeced Wab. — b. c. 357. — "While Athenians had been thus 
fruitlessly contending with Macedon, Thebes had renewed her hostility 
with Sparta in another from. Unable to punish her rival as she 
desired for the treachery of Phoebidas, she complained of the act 
to the Amphictyonic council. The council listened to the story of 
Theban wrongs, and fined the Lacedemonians an immense sum. They 
refused to pay it; and after a specified time the fine was doubled. 
They still made no exertions to meet the demand ; and after another 
period it was made three-fold. 

11. The Phocians were always enemies of the Thebans, and for that, 
if for no other reason, friends of the Spartans. The Thebans, there- 
fore, accused them of having plowed ap the Cirrhcean plain, which the 
council had so solemnly consecrates to the god. This accusation was 
responded! to by a decree, "That the Cirrhajan land had been devoted, 
and the Phocians must immediately cease to use it, and pay a fine. 1 * 
It was so long since the Amphictyons had interfered in Grecian affairs, 
that many contended they had no right to do so : the subject was 
"taken up in the lips of talkers," and much uneasiness was excited; 
but the land, meantime, was cultivated as before, and the fine remained 
unpaid. 

12. When the appointed time had expired, this fine, like the one 
imposed upon Lacedemon, was doubled, and a new decree of the coun- 
cil declared, that " All states guilty of such contempt for Amphictyo- 
nic law, as, after the duplication of the fine, to let the limited time 
pass without taking any measures for payment, forfeited all their lands 
to the god; and that accordingly all the lands of the Lacedemonians 

Questions— §. For what did the Macedonian court become distinguished ? 10. What 
complaint did Thebes bring against Sparta? What action did the council take? 11,12 
. What compliant did Thebes make against the Phenicians ? What was the iv • ill ? 



228 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 357. 

and Fhocians were forfeited." This was followed by a proclamation 
to the Greeks, that it behooved every man and every state, as they 
hoped for divine favor, or feared divine wrath, to do their utmost 
toward carrying the decree into execution. The Amphictyons having 
thus sounded the trumpet of war, consternation and dismay pervaded 
the valleys of Phocis. 

13. Alliance between Phocis and Lacedemon. — Though the Pho- 
cians had never meddled in Grecian politics, they were not destitute 
of courage, nor insensible to the charms of liberty. One man was 
found among them, the oldest of three brothers, who might have vied 
with Pericles, had he lived to perfect all the great qualities which the 
present exigency called into action.. A congress of the Phocian cities 
having been called, to deliberate upon the state of the country, this 
man, Philomelus, represented to them that the Cirrhaean land had 
belonged to the Phocians from time immemorial; that they also had a 
right to the presidency of the Delphic oracle, of which the Amphic- 
tyons had unjustly deprived them; and that as they were now strug- 
gling against their oppressors, they might reasonably hope for the 
divine blessing upon their endeavors. 

14. The assembly felt the force of his reasonings, and committed to 
him the direction of affairs, with the title of general-autocrator. He 
proceeded at once to Sparta to concert measures for withstanding the 
Thebans, who were preparing to show their piety by enforcing the 
Amphictyonic decree. He was well received by the Ephori ; and 
Archidamus, the king, did all in his power to further his plans. It 
was agreed that the Delphian treasury was unsafe in the hands of the 
Amphictyons, and ought immediately to be reduced to a dependence 
upon Phocian virtue ; but how to bring about so desirable a change 
was an important question. 

15. Sparta had no money to hire mercenaries, and her own troops 
could not reach Delphi without fighting their way through hostile 
Arcadia. With money supplied by private liberality, Philomelus, how- 
ever, succeeded in hiring those soldiers who, since the battle of Manti- 
nea, had been roving about in idleness; and, watching his opportunity, 
got them conveyed across the Corinthian Gulf. With all possible dis- 
patch he marched to Delphi, and putting the guard to flight, gained 
possession of the place. His first act was to destroy the decrees 
against Phocis and Lacedemon, by defacing the marble upon which 

Questions.— -13. What alliance was formed in consequence ? Who was Philomelus ? What 
representation did he make? 14. What power was committed to him? Give an account 
of his movements. 15. Give a further account of his movements. 



B. c. 357.] PHILIP THE GREAT. 229 

they were engraved. Then, publishing a declaration that he had taken 
charge of the temple and its treasures, by command of the Phocians, 
to whom the holy shrine belonged, he requested all the states of 
Greece to assist his countrymen in maintaining their ancient right. 

16. Athens entered at once into a confederacy with Phocis. Most 
of the Grecian states engaged in the quarrel, and many bloody but 
indecisive battles were fought. The Thebans, having taken several 
prisoners, caused them all to be put to death as sacrilegious wretches; 
and the Phocians retaliated this cruelty upon some Theban captives. 
Finally, having been defeated in a great battle, Philomelus was driven 
to an eminence whence there was no retreat ; and, rather than fall into 
the hands of his enemies, threw himself headlong from the rock, and 
was dashed in pieces. The command then devolved upon his brother, 
Onomarchus. 

17. Philip enters the Lists.— Philip was at this time engaged in 
the siege of Methone, which Athens had stirred up to make incursion9 
upon his territory. The siege lasted through the winter, nor did he 
withdraw his troops from the place till it was dismantled and added 
to the Macedonian territory. Then, hearing that Onomarchus was 
supporting a revolt in Thessaly, he engaged in the Sacred War. He 
lost two battles and was obliged to retreat to his own country; but, 
raising another army, he advanced again to Thermopylae, where he 
met the Phocians and defeated them with great slaughter. Upwards 
of 6,000 were slain upon the spot; and the prisoners, amounting to 
3,000, were thrown into the sea, as the professed enemies of religion. 
Onomarchus was slain, and the command devolved upon his brother, 
Phayllus. 

18. By this great victory, all Thessaly came under the dominion of 
Philip ; nor was it in the power even of Demosthenes to diminish the 
credit which Philip had gained by destroying those who had usurped 
the guardianship of the oracle, and used its treasures in hiring soldiers 
to resist the decrees of the Amphictyons. "It is incredible," says an 
ancient historian, " what glory the victory over Onomarchus earned 
to Philip among all nations. He was the avenger of sacrilege; he 
was the protector of the religion of Greece. Next to the immortal 
gods is he, by whom the majesty of the gods is vindicated." 

Questions. — 16. What confederacy was formed? What is said of other states engaging 
in the quarrel? What cruelties and retaliations were perpetrated ? Give an account of the 
death of Philomelus. Who then commanded ? 17. Where was Philip at this time? What 
success did he meet with there? How came be to be engaged in the Sacred War? How 
did his first battles result? At what place did he gain a great victory ? Give some ac 
count of it. 18. What condition of things followed the victory ? What is reported at 
having byen said by an ancient hibtorian? 



230 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 346. 

19. Phayllus was victorious in several battles with the Thebans, but 
died soon after, of consumption. Faction, that curse of the Grecian 
republics, then fixed its venomous fangs upon the Phocians. There 
arose two pretenders to the office of autocrator-general, and while 
they were intent upon settling this affair, Philip, at the head of his 
forces, joined the Thebans in an attack upon Phocis. The distracted 
Phocians, unable to defend themselves, appealed to his generosity to 
escape the vengeance of the Thebans. They requested only that they 
might have permission to abandon their houses and lands, and seek 
safety in flight. This request was granted. The principal Phocians 
emigrated; and thus, after many bloody struggles during ten years, 
the Sacred War quietly ended. 

20. The Double Vote. — To settle the points now agitating Greece, 
Philip invited a congress of all the states to meet at Thermopylae. 
This grave assembly, in commencing their difficult and complicated 
business, referred the affair of the Phocians to the Amphictyonic 
council. By their decree all the Amphictyonic rights of the Phocians 
were said to be forfeited, and all their principal cities were given over 
to be dismantled ; it was ordered that no village should contain more 
than fifty houses, and that a yearly rent of $4,800 should be paid from 
the Phocian lands till the debt of the god was liquidated. The double 
vote in the Amphictyonic council which the Phocians had heretofore 
enjoyed was bestowed upon Philip, in consideration of the benefits 
he had conferred upon the Greek nation. A general peace was then 
concluded ; and throughout Greece, with the exception of the war 
party in Athens, all voices were joined in extolling Philip as their 
friend, and benefactor, and preserver. 

21. Macedonian" War. — While the Sacred War was in progress, 
the Athenians commenced hostile demonstrations in Thrace, for the 
recovery of the lost Chersonese and the recapture of Byzantium. 
This attack, which resulted in the Macedonian War, proceeded step 
by step with the Sacred War; so that while the Athenians were 
allies of the Phocians in that fatal struggle, they were at the same 
time " parties of the first part " in a war of their own seeking. Philip, 
on his side, had to contend with all the enemies the Athenians could 
stir up against him. The Illyrians again commenced hostilities upon 
the west, the Paeonians on the north, and the Thracians on the east. 

Questions. — 19. What success did Phayllus have? What occurred soon after? By what 
means was the war terminated? 20. By whom was a congress called? At what place? 
For what purpose? What decree was made? How was Philip rewarded? With whom 
had he been fighting: during the war? 21. What was the cause of the Macedonian Wart 
What opposition confronted Philip? 



b. c. 356.] BIRTH OF ALEXANDER. 231 

But he was never unready for business. He sent Parmeirio with an 
army against his troublesome neighbors, and marched himself into 
Thrace, where his good fortune was so great, that, according to Demos- 
thenes, "he made and unmade there what kings he chose." 

22. Birth of Alexander. — Philip had just returned from this suc- 
cessful expedition, when a messenger came to him with the welcome 
intelligence of a great victory which Parmeirio had gained over the 
Illyrians. The same day another courier brought him word that his 
horse had won the palm in the Olympic games. Scarcely had he been 
congratulated upon these successes, when a third messenger arrived 
with the information of the birth of a son. "0, fortune," exclaimed 
the happy monarch, "send some little evil to temper all this good." 
Not long after, he wrote the following letter to Aristotle, inviting him 
to take charge of the young prince. " Philip to Aristotle, greeting. 
I desire you should know I have a son born. Greatly I thank the 
gods for it, and yet less for the mere circumstance that I have a son, 
than because it happens in the age wherein you are living. I trust 
that, being put under your care and instruction, he will become worthy 
of his birth, and of the inheritance awaiting him." 

23. Olynthus and Athens. — It was just after these events that 
Philip engaged with Methone and the Phocians. Demosthenes, dis- 
appointed in the result, brought about a confederacy with Olynthus. 
Since the alliance of that republic with Macedon, it had prospered 
wonderfully ; but, becoming jealous of its neighbor, it entered into a 
treaty with Athens, contrary to its existing engagements with Mace- 
don, and prepared for war with a zeal which showed a sense of the 
just indignation of Philip. The war party of Athens were now " in 
the full tide of successful experiment." "Now was the favorable 
moment, they said, to engage all Greece in a league against the threat- 
ening ambition of the Macedonian king." Philip was represented as 
the most false and cruel of tyrants, who had a certain design upon the 
liberties of Greece. 

24. Demosthenes commenced his Olynthiac orations, and undertook 
the difficult and dangerous experiment of persuading the Athenians to 
divert the theoric revenue (the sum appropriated to the support of 
theaters) from its legitimate object, to the purposes of war. This 

Questions.— 21. On what expedition did he send Parmenio? To what place did Philip 
march? What did Demosthenes say of Philip's good fortune? 22. What three pieces of 
good news did Philip receive? What exclamation did he make? What was the language 
of his Utter to Aristotle? 23. Why did Olynthus turn against Philip? What was the 
ohject of Demosthenes? How was Philip represented? 24. What dangu-ous task did 
Demosthenes undertake? 



232 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 346 

attempt to rob the amusement-loving Athenians of their greatest 
pleasure, would have cost the life of a less popular man than the 
renowned orator ; but he had so fixed the attention of the populace 
upon the great actor, Philip, that they consented to give up their cus- 
tomary entertainment, to assist in the grand tragedy going on in Olyn- 
thus. Indeed, the representations of the orator produced such a zeal 
in the Athenian people, that a force was fitted out to assist Olynthus 
such as had never, since the fatal Sicilian expedition, been sent upon 
foreign service. 

25. Philip was not prepared for this new war. His country wa9 
open on the Olynthiac side, and his enemies had overrun and plundered 
his territories before he had time to make any effectual opposition. 
In the winter, the Athenian general, Chares, returned to Athens. 
The people assembled as usual to hear his report. He gave a thrilling 
account of a glorious battle and uninterrupted success, and, to com- 
plete the gratification of his fellow-citizens, he made a great feast for 
all the people, which cost at least $50,000. This money was not fur- 
nished from liis private purse, nor from the profits of his command, 
but from the Delphian treasury, having been extorted from their allies, 
the Phocians. While these rejoicings were going on in Athens, the 
Olynthians were very uneasy. Philip was making grand preparations 
for the spring campaign, and when Chares returned to the theater of 
war, he found a force far superior to his own assembled upon the 
Olynthian border. He ventured a battle, and was defeated ; a second, 
with no better success. The Olynthians were then obliged to take 
shelter behind their walls. 

26. The other towns of the confederacy submitted at once to the 
conqueror, and Philip approached within five miles of Olynthus, and 
fortified his camp. The wretched inhabitants then desired to enter 
into a treaty. He answered, "That it was too late; he had before 
abundantly and repeatedly expressed his disposition to treat, but now 
it was become too evident that there was but one alternative; they 
must quit Olynthus, or he Macedonia." The surrender of the place 
occurred not long after, and the victor carried out his determination 
of compelling them to leave the peninsula. It seemed advisable now, 
even to Demosthenes, to make peace ; and Philip having manifested 

Questions. — 24. Why would it not have been safe for any other person to have made the 
attempt? Why was Demosthenes successful ? 25. Why was not Philip prepared for this 
new war? What account did Chares give to the Athenians? What is said of his feast? 
Of his first two hattles thereafter? 26. How near to Olynthus did Philip approach ? How 
was Olynthus situated? (See map No. 2.) What desire did the Olynthians expresr ? 
What was Philip's reply ' What followed ? How did this war terminate ? 



B. c. 343.] PHILIP THE GREAT. 233 

the same disposition, it was soon concluded. The Macedonian court 
became the focus of negotiation for the Grecian republics, and at the 
very time and place of the settlement of the disputes arising out of the 
Sacred War, the difficulties of Macedon and Athens were finally ad- 
justed, and a general peace brought repose to the country. 

27. Philip's Expedition. — b. o. 343. — Three years after, Philip 
turned his attention to the barbarians who had inhabited his north- 
eastern frontier. They fled before him, and he pursued till winter over- 
took him upon the banks of the Danube, and his way was entirely hedged 
in. Reports of various kinds were spread in Greece. It was said he 
was sick. It was rumored that he was dead ; and, depending upon the 
truth of these stories, or counting more certainly upon the dangers 
with which he was surrounded, the war party* in Athens, of which 
the great orator was the life and soul, began again to lift its head. 
By making war in Thrace, it was contended that "Philip had broken 
the peace, and that it was evidently his design to destroy Athens and 
overthrow democracy." Acting under this persuasion, the Athenians 
instructed the commanders of their fleet to stop all the ships bound to 
Macedonia, and, condemning the crews as enemies to Athens, to sell 
them into slavery. 

28. Philip remonstrated in vain. Demosthenes had in effect exalted 
himself to the station of prime-minister of the republic; viceroy of 
that sovereign assembly which met to decide upon the fate of thou- 
sands; and Ms voice "was still for war." To discharge the duties of 
his arduous office, he applied himself to every kind of business with 
untiring vigilance, and watched an opportunity to bring all the states 
of Greece into a confederacy to overthrow Macedonian supremacy. 
For this purpose, he did not scruple to receive money from the Per- 
sian king, nor to exert his influence in healing the breach between 
Athens and Thebes. Though these cities had fought on opposite sides 
at the battle of Mantinea and in the Sacred War, yet Demosthenes 
having shown them the advantage of being friends, they readily con- 
sented to bury private animosities in the grave they were digging for 
the power of Macedon. 

29. The coalition was for a time successful. Chares had been sent 

* The war party opposed every measure of Philip's ; but Phocion and the venerable Iso- 
crates bought only for the pacification of Greece. 

Questions— 11. Give an account of Philip's expedition. What charge did the Athenian 
war party make against Philip? What instructions were given to commanders of Athe- 
nian vessels ? 28. To what position had Demosthenes risen ? To what did he apply him- 
self? Of whom did he receive money? For what purpose? What reconciliation did h« 
effect ? 



23J. GREECE — MACEDONIA. [d. c. 343. 

with succors to Byzantium, which was attacked by the Macedonian 
king; but, failing in his commission, was recalled in disgrace. Pho- 
cion then undertook to preserve that city for Athens. The virtue and 
moderation of this general were well known; and a man of eminence 
in Byzantium, who had been his intimate friend at the Academy,* 
pledged his honor to the city in his behalf. The Byzantines then 
threw open their gates, admitted the Athenians, and joined them 
against Macedon. By these means Philip lost all the towns on the 
Chersonese, and suffered not a little in his military reputation. He 
was now, as ever, very desirous of peace, and particularly anxious to 
gain the friendship of the Athenians, for reasons of his own ; but De- 
mosthenes opposed the terms which Phociont advised them to accept, 
and the war went on with mutual attacks and reprisals four years 
longer, without any decisive advantage to either side. 

30. Third Sacred War. — But a new leaven was at work in the 
great loaf of Grecian discomfort, which soon produced a fermentation 
throughout the whole mass. Amphissa, a town not seven miles from 
Delphi, bordered on that devoted Cirrhsean plain forbidden to the use 
of man. The Amphissajans, unwarned by the fate of the Phocians, 
used the land for pasturage, and ventured to repair the long-deserted 
harbor. These acts iEschines, an orator in the interest of Macedon, 
represented as a repetition of the former sacrilege, and the Amphic- 
tyons, of which he was a member, declared war against the Araphis- 
sa3ans, and invited Philip to command the armies of the god. This 
brought the crafty Macedonian at once into the midst of Grecian 
affairs. Demosthenes immediately sounded the alarm for the Grecian 
states. Even Corinth, the old enemy of Athens, joined the war party. 
All was bustle and confusion ; fortifications were repaired, arms made 
and burnished, and every man was on the alert. Diogenes, the famous 

* The school of Plato. 

t Though Phocion had engaged in hostility with Philip, and driven him out of the Hel- 
lespont, he was still in favor of peace ; but he was not a gifted orator, and therefore failed to 
carry his point. The perils of his country alone induced him to mount the bema. He 
excelled in readiness of reply, and exposed with cutting sarcasm any fallacy in argument. 
Demosthenes, who had often felt the keenness of his wit, styled him the Hatchet. 

Questions.— 29. Where did the Athenian troops meet Philip? What did Phocion effect? 
What then was Philip's condition? Why was not the war then brought to a close? 30. 
What causes produced the third Sacred War? What course did Demosthenes take? What 
were the consequences? What did Diogenes do? Who was Diogenes? Ans. A famous 
Cynic philosopher, born in Pontus: he lived in the summer at Corinth, and in the win- 
ter at Athens. He taught that a man, to be happy, must despise honor, power, and all the 
enjoyments of life. He walked the streets barefooted and without any coat. At night he 
slept in a tub. He exposed the follies of the age by the keenest sarcasms. Being asked, 
'•What is the most dangerous animal?" he replied: k: Among wild animals, the slanderer; 
amoiig tame the flatterer/ 1 



B.C. 338.] PHILIP THE GREAT. 235 

Cynic philosopher, at that time in the city, began to roll his tub about 
in a remarkable manner. Being asked why he did so, he said "he 
did not wish to be the only man in Corinth not absurdly employed." 

31. But all their preparations were in vain. Philip easily punished 
the Amphissreans ; and then, as if afraid of Athens and her confede- 
rates, seized upon Elatea, the principal city of Phocis. It was late in 
the evening when a courier arrived at Athens with the news of the 
fall of Elatea. The Prytanes were at supper, but, instantly rising from 
the table, some of them went to the agora, dismissed the ware-sellers, 
and burned their stalls; others sent to call the trumpeter, and the 
whole city was filled with tumult. Next morning the people were 
called together, and a herald proclaimed that any one who would 
advise the assembly might speak. A dead silence ensued. Finally. 
Demosthenes mounted the bema, and, having clearly demonstrated to 
the people that Philip meant to enter Attica, and reduce them all to 
slavery, he so wrought upon the passions of his audience, that it was 
decreed to send the whole force of 4-ttica to oppose the Macedonian, 
and defend the liberty of the Greeks. 

32. Battle of Cheroneia. — b. c. 338. — It was upon the plain of 
Cheroneia, about sixteen miles from Elatea, that the allied forces of 
Thebes and Athens led the "forlorn hope " of Grecian democracy against 
the overwhelming power of the Macedonian monarchy. The particulars 
of the battle it is not necessary to relate. Philip was victorious. Alex- 
ander, at the head of the Macedonian youth, cut down the Sacred 
Thcban Band. They neither turned nor wavered in the fight, but fell 
upon the spot where they were stationed, each by the side of his dar- 
ling friend, like the three hundred Spartans, leaving their bodies a 
monument of their constancy to the cause of liherty. The news of 
the defeut at Cheroneia produced terror and consternation among the 
Athenians. They looked for nothing less than a second Lysander in 
the king they had so often provoked. Demosthenes, who fought in 
the battle, made his escape in the general flight, and, embarking in a 
trireme, sailed from the Piraeus, saying that he was going to collect 
tribute. Philip, however, did not pursue the fugitives: he even sent 
the prisoners home without ransom, determined, if possible, to attach 
the Athenians to his interests. 

33. From the field of battle the victorious army marched to Thebes. 

Questions.— 31. What city fell into the hands of Philip? Where was Elatea ? (See map 
No. 2.) What effect did the news of the fall of Elatea have at Athens? What was done by 
Demosthenes? 82. Where was the plain of Cheroneia? When was the battle of Cheroneia 
fought? Give an account of it. What is said of Demosthenes? Of Philip's generosity 1 
88. To what place did the victors then march? 



236 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 336. 

No opposition was made to their entrance. The government passed 
quietly into the hands of the Macedonian party, and Beotia rejoiced in 
the change of masters. As soon as it was known that the conqueror 
was disposed to peace, an embassy was sent from the Athenians to 
negotiate in their favor. Philip made no hard conditions, and Phocion 
had the satisfaction of contributing to the welfare of his country in 
the peace which was ratified. The great purpose of the monarch 1 ? 
soul was now unvailed. Diodorus says, " Philip, encouraged by his 
victory at Cheroneia, was ambitious of becoming military commander 
of the Greek nation. He declared therefore his intention of carrying 
tear in the common cause of the Greeks against the Persians.'''' By the 
national congress which he summoned at Corinth, he was elected 
general-autocrator of Greece, and the proportion of troops which 
every state should furnish for the Persian war was settled. 

34. Death of Philip. — b. o. 336. — Thus crowned with honor, he 
returned to Macedon, to prepare for the great enterprise which had so 
long occupied his thoughts ; but the dagger of the assassin cut short 
his schemes, and left Asia unconquered for his son. Philip loved con- 
viviality, and was often intoxicated. Olympias was proud and impe- 
rious. The other princesses, whom policy or a more tender motive 
led her husband to introduce into his palace, excited her contempt, 
and aroused her resentment ; and, after many quarrels, she retired to 
her brother's court. Alexander espoused his mother's cause, and took 
up his abode in Illyria. This breach was apparently healed ; and the 
mother and son had returned to Macedon. Cleopatra, Alexander's 
sister, was to be married to her uncle, the king of Epirus, and great 
preparations were made for the wedding. Philip, having summoned 
the states of Greece to furnish their soldiers, and having received a 
satisfactory response from the oracle,* intended on this occasion to 
secure the peace of his dominions by every possible friendly alliance 
before setting out for Asia. 

35. Guests were bidden from all parts of Greece. The most cele- 
brated actors and musicians were engaged to entertain the goodly 
company. Deputies came to offer congratulations, and to present him 
with golden crowns. The day following the nuptials, a grand exhibi- 
tion was to take place in the theater. Philip, clothed in white robes, 

* The response was this : " Crowned is the victim, the altar is ready, the stroke is 
impending.'''' 

Questions. — 33. What followed ? What is said of Phocion ? What ambitious views had 
Philip? To what position was he elected? 34. What is stated as against Philip? What 
quarrel occurred ? What marriage was arranged? What preparations therefor did Philip 
make? 35. How far wc-e the preparations carried out? Give an account of Philip's death 



B. c. 336.] ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 937 

advanced at the head of the procession ; but just as the shouts of the 
admiring multitude announced the king, a young man ran out from the 
crowd, and, drawing a sword, stabbed him to the heart. Philip fell 
dead. The assassin fled, but was pursued and killed as he was mount- 
ing his horse. It was said to be a matter of private revenge; but 
Olympias was suspected of having instigated the crime, and Alexander 
did not escape the horrid imputation.* 

36. Alexander the Great was born at Pella, b. o. 356, on the very 
day that the temple of Diana at Ephesus was burned to the ground. 
All the magi who were at Ephesus, looked upon the Jire as an emblem 
of a much greater misfortune, and ran about the town beating their 
breasts, and crying out, "This day has brought forth the scourge and 
destroyer of x\sia." Whether the forebodings of the magi were real 
or feigned, Asia had good reason to tremble when he who was destined 
to subdue her ancient lords, and water her plains with the blood of 
her sons, entered upon the stage of life. Leonatus, an austere man, 
was his governor till eight years of age, when Lysimachus, an Acar- 
nanian, became his instructor. As the family of Olympia claimed 
their descent from the renowned Achilles, Lysimachus ingratiated 
himself into their favor by dignifying his pupil with the name of that 
warrior — a circumstance which doubtless contributed to foster the 
ambitious feelings which had been observed in him from his infancy. 

37. In his fifteenth year, Alexander was placed under the immediate 
tuition of the celebrated Aristotle,t and continued to receive instruc- 

* No sooner did Demosthenes hear of the death of his great enemy, than he assembled 
the Athenian people, and persuaded them to offer a sacrifice as upon news of a splendid 
victory ; and though he was at that time in mourning for his only child, he put on a festal 
robe, and attended the ceremony crowned with flowers. 

" Thus fell the greatest potentate of his time in Europe. "With very small resources in 
the outset, he acquired the most powerful monarchy that had ever existed among the 
Greeks; but his great success arose less from the force of his arms, than from his obliging 
disposition and conduct. 1 ' 

+ Akistott.e was born at Stagira, an island on the Macedonian coast, b. c. 384. At the 
age of seventeen he went to Athens, and devoted himself to philosophy in the school 
of Plato. His uncommon acuteness and indefatigable industry gained for him so high a 
rank, that Plato used to call him the " Mind of the School, 11 and to say, when he was 
absent, "Intellect is not here. 11 He lived in Athens twenty years, during which he 
wrote many works; thence he. passed to Macedonia, where he remained in quality ot tutor 
to Alexander eight more, and then returned to Athens. He kept up, however, a corre- 
spondence with the young king, and persuaded him to use his power and wealth in the 
service of philosophy. Alexander employed several thousand persons in different parts of 
Europe and Asia to collect animals of various kinds, birds, beasts, and fishes, to send to 
Aristotle, who, from the information thus afforded, wrote fifty volumes on the history of 

Question*.— 36. Where was Alexander the Great born? When? What memorable 
event took place the same day? Where was Pella? (Map No. 2.) Who were the first in- 
structors of Alexander? 37. What is said of his subsequent training? Who was Aristotle? 



238 GREECE— MACEDONIA. [b. C. 336. 

tion from that philosopher in all the branches of human knowledge, 
until he came to the throne. For him Aristotle wrote a work on 
Government, and revised the Iliad, that he might present to his royal 
pupil an accurate copy of his favorite poem. This volume Alexander 
preserved with the greatest care, placing it every night with his sword 
under his pillow. His tutor too he held in the highest esteem, and 
believed himself bound to love him as much as his father, declaring, 
" That he was indebted to the. one for living, and to the other for liv- 
ing well." 

38. While Alexander was yet a boy, there was sent from Thessaly 
to Philip a noble war-horse, called Bucephalus, which, upon trial, 
proved so strong and fiery that no one dared to mount him. Philip 
gave orders that the unmanageable creature should be sent back again, 
when Alexander interposed, and besought permission to try his skill. 
It was granted. Alexander went up to the horse, spoke kindly to 
him, and, perceiving that he was frightened at his own shadow, turned 
him about, vaulted upon his back, and rode him round the circle of 
admiring courtiers with the greatest ease and address. "When he 
alighted his father embraced him, exclaiming, u My son, seek a king- 
dom more worthy of thee, for Macedon is below thy merits." Buce- 
phalus was ever after the favorite horse of Alexander, and the animal 
became so attached to his master that he would permit no one else to 
mount him. 

39. At the age of sixteen, Alexander received the embassadors of 
Persia in the absence of his father, and, instead of inquiring about the 
palace and court, with a curiosity natural to his years, engaged with 
them in conversation upon the subjects of government, battles, and 
sieges, displaying such intelligence and discernment as quite surprised 
his visitors. At the age of eighteen, he commanded the Macedonian 
youth in the battle of Oheroneia, and cut down the Sacred Theban 
Band. At the age of twenty, by the death of his father, he became 
monarch of Macedon, and generalissimo of the GreeTc forces. 

40. First Arrangements of Alexander. — Macedon had been 

animated nature. lie differed with Plato in philosophy, and established a school at Athens, 
In the grove called Lyceum,.in opposition to the Academy. He delivered his lectures while 
walking about, and his followers were in consequence called Peripatetics. He continued 
his labors there thirteen years, and then retired to Chalcis, in Eubcea, to escape a fate simi- 
lar to that of Socrates. He died there at the age of sixty-three. He was buried at Stagira, 
where his memory was honored with an altar and a tomb. 

Questions. — 37. How did Alexander regard Aristotle? 38. Give the account of Alex- 
ander and the horse Bucephalus. 39. What is related of Alexander at the age of sixteen ? 
Of him at the age of eighteen? Of him at the age of twenty? 40. What changes had 
Fillip effected in Macedon? 



B. c. 335.] ALEXANDER TEE GREAT. 239 

greatly changed by the energetic and beneficent policy of Philip. 
The inhabitants, from rude, uncultivated herdsmen at war with neigh- 
boring states, had been transformed into agriculturists, mechanics, or 
soldiers, who knew how to maintain a respectable position among the 
nations of Greece. But though Macedon was thus improved in its 
internal state, and comfortably allied with its neighbors, yet the death 
of Philip again roused the spirit of faction throughout Greece. The 
young king, however, showed himself fully capable of meeting his 
enemies, either in the field or cabinet. " The king's name is indeed 
changed," said he to the Macedonian assembly, "but the king, you 
shall find, remains the same." He retained the able ministers and 
generals who had assisted his father, and by their counsel and aid 
succeeded in quelling a rebellion already excited in his own dominions, 
and in securing the friendship of Thessaly, his most powerful ally. 

41. Thus fortified, he proceeded to Thermopylae, and took his 
inherited seat in the Amphictyonic council. Notwithstanding the 
efforts of Demosthenes, embassadors were sent from Athens as from 
the other states, to congratulate him upon his accession to the throne, 
and to desire a continuation of the friendship formed tcith his father. 

. From Thermopylae Alexander proceeded to Corinth, where, a congress 
of the states being assembled, the question of his election to the station 
of autocrator-general to carry the war into Persia was warmly dis- 
cussed. He was elected by a great majority, though the Lacedemo- 
nians sternly opposed the measure. While in this region he deter- 
mined to consult the oracle, but, as he happened to go upon an unlucky 
day, the priestess refused to officiate. The impetuous prince, however, 
seized her by the arm and dragged her into the temple, when she 
cried out, " My son, thou art invincible." Alexander, hearing this, 
said, " He wanted no other answer, for he had the very oracle he 
desired." 

42. Wars in the North, East, and West. — Upon his return 
home, he began to make preparations for his great enterprise, but was 
prevented from setting off immediately by his troublesome neighbors. 
The Triballians and Thracians formed a league against him on the 
northeast, and the Illyrians again commenced incursions on the west. 
Parmenio, the general who had so faithfully served his father, was 

Questions.— 40. What caused the spirit of faction to break out again in Macedon ? What 
did Alexander say to the Macedonian assembly? 41. What inherited seat did Alexander 
tase? What efforts did Demosthenes make in vain? To what place did Alexander next 
proceed? What was done at Corinth? Give the account of Alexander with the oracle 
Trace Alexander on the map, from Pella through his journey. 42. What troubles threat- 
ened Alexander on the northeast and west? On what expedition was Parmenio sent? 



240 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 335. 

sent against the latter, and Alexander himself marched against the 
barbarians. He pursued them to the mountains, and overcame every 
obstacle with ease, till he reached the rugged chain of Haemus, whose 
denies Count Diebitsch so gallantly forced in the late war between 
Russia and Turkey. The mountaineers, unpracticed in regular war- 
fare, established themselves upon the summits overlooking the only 
practicable pass, and, loading wagons with stones, prepared to roll 
them down upon the invaders. 

43. The shields of the Macedonians were of a rectangular form, and 
large enough to protect the whole body. Alexander accordingly 
directed his soldiers to open their ranks, and let the wagons pass, and, 
where this was impracticable, to fall upon the ground, and cover them- 
selves with their compacted shields. This plan succeeded. The wagons 
were wasted in vain ; not a man was killed by their impetuous descent ; 
and the phalanx, rapidly forming, advanced up the hill with loud shouts. 
The barbarians were routed, and their women and children falling into 
the hands of the Macedonians were sold for slaves. Alexander, deter- 
mined in the beginning to make sure work, had ordered vessels from 
Byzantium to proceed up the Danube. After three days' journey 
through cultivated plains, he reached the banks of that mighty stream, 
and beheld upon the other side the country of the Getse, or Goths, 
covered with wheat, already white to the harvest. Here, meeting his 
vessels, he transported his army across in the night, and the next day 
advanced towards the capital of the barbarians. 

44. The Goths had assembled to give battle, but when they saw the 
phalanx approaching, with spears presented and burnished shields, 
hardly admitting a sight of what bore them, together with the cavalry 
moving with miraculous regularity, they fled in the greatest dismay. 
Their city fell into the hands of the Macedonians, and this bloodless 
victory was rewarded with great booty. Returning from this expedi- 
tion before the Illyrians were subdued, he marched against them, and, 
falling upon them when they thought him still at a distance, gained so 
complete a victory that they never attempted rebellion again in his 
reign. 

45. Confedeeaot against Macedon. — Scarcely were these enemies 
reduced, when new ones required his attention. Demosthenes, who 

Questions.— 42. On what expedition did Alexander march ? How did the mountaineers 
prepare to encounter Alexander ? 43. How did Alexander meet this kind of warfare ? What 
was the result? What direction had Alexander given to vessels ? Why? Give a further 
account of Alexander's movements. 44. How did the Goths behave ? What was the con- 
sequence? What rapid movement did Alexander then make? Trace Alexander's routQ 
45. What did Demosthenes do while Alexander was absent? 



b. c. 335.] ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 241 

hated and feared the son as sincerely as he had the father, and who 
used unsparingly the eloquence with which nature had so richly 
endowed him, and the gold with which the king of Persia so liberally 
furnished him, had succeeded in forming another confederacy against 
Macedon. After the battle of Oheroneia, a Macedonian garrison had 
been left in Thebes. The commanders of this garrison were both 
murdered in one night, and a report was at the same time circulated 
that Alexander was dead. A revolution immediately took place in 
Thebes, the Macedonian alliance was removed, and the city declared 
independent. The Thessalians, knowing whence the storm arose, 
declared war against A thens and Thebes; and Greece was again all 
commotion. 

46. When these circumstances were reported to Alexander, in his 
camp in Illyria, he lost no time in deliberation. Taking the shortest 
route over a country of rocky, wooded mountains, in twelve days he 
arrived before the walls of Thebes with a chosen band. He hoped by 
the uncalculated rapidity of his march to intimidate his enemies, and 
compose matters without bloodshed; but though the Thebans were 
struck with dismay when they heard of his approach, they still deter- 
mined to make an effort ; and though the Athenians were not yet in 
arms, nor the Arcadians ready to march, they shut themselves up in 
their city, and, relying upon the strength of their walls, obstinately 
refused all offers of peace. 

47. Ruin of Thebes. — The horrors perpetrated at the storming of 
Thebes have been rarely paralleled in the annals of war. Many brave 
men fell upon both sides before the gates were forced, but when once 
the multitudes of Phocians, Thespians, and Plateans (who had suffered 
so much from Theban cruelty, and were now found ranged under the 
banner of Alexander) came to settle their long account of blood, the 
city of Cadmus fell beneath the fearful retribution. The conquering 
army ravaged the town, careless of commands, and slaughtered alike 
the submissive and resisting. The altars, to which many fled for pro- 
tection, flowed with the blood of the slain ; even the slaves of the 
Thebans turned against their masters, and joined in the work of ven- 
geance. 

48. It does not appear that Alexander had power to mitigate these 
horrors, but, unwilling to bear the odium of destroying a Grecian city, 

Questions. — 45. What took place in Thebes? Why did the Thessalians declare war against 
Athens as well as Thebes ? 46. Wh^re was Alexander at the time ? What rapid movement 
did he make? What did he expect to gain ? Did the Thebans yield at once ? What did 
they do? 47. Give an account of the fall of Thebes. 4S. What measures were adopted 
jwelirainary to the destruction of Thebes ? Where was Thebes ? (See Map No. 2.) 
U 



242 G REECE — MACEDONIA. [p. c. 335. 

he summoned a congress of the states to decide upon her fate. By 
this assembly the same measure which the Thebans had meted out to 
the Phocians, at the conclusion of the Sacred War, was now measured 
out to her. It was decreed that the Theban state should be anni- 
hilated, the town utterly destroyed, the surviving inhabitants sold into 
slavery, and the territory given to the conquering allies. Alexander 
succeeded in saving the house of the poet Pindar from the flames, 
and all his descendants from slavery, b. o. 335. Thus ended the city 
founded by Cadmus, after having been one of the heads of Greece 
seven hundred and ten years. 

49. What passed in Athens. — A part of the Theban cavalry 
escaped to Athens, and the consternation which pervaded that city at 
the news they brought can scarcely be imagined. Not even Demos- 
thenes dared to mount the berna and harangue the people. The coun- 
sels of Phocion consequently prevailed, and an embassy was sent to 
the victors, to apologize for the part Athens had taken, and beg for 
peace. Alexander received the deputies with favor, but insisted that 
the Athenians should deliver up ten of their most factious citizens 
to be tried, as the common enemies of Greece. In this number were 
Demosthenes and Charidemus. By the fable of the sheep who gave 
up their guardian dogs, the great orator dissuaded his countrymen 
from complying with the demand. Another embassy was therefore 
sent, to solicit better terms ; and Alexander finally granted them, 
insisting only on the banishment of Charidemus, whom he suspected 
of having been an accomplice in his father's murder. We shall hear 
of him again in Persia. 

50. The domestic troubles of Greece being thus once more quieted, 
the autocrator returned home, to prepare for that expedition which 
had so long occupied his ambitious thoughts. He intrusted the govern- 
ment of Macedon to Antipater, with a body of twenty thousand sol- 
diers, to keep the states of Greece in awe. For the conquest of Asia, 
in which he was now setting out, he had only thirty thousand foot 
and five thousand horse, one month's provisions, and about forty thou- 
sand dollars in money. With this comparatively insignificant force, 
Alexander marched to attack that power which had swallowed up 



Questions.— 48. Give an account of the destruction of the city. What exception wa.« 
made in the work of destruction ? 49. To what place did a part of the Theban cavalry 
escape? What was the effect of the news there? What action did the Athenians take? 
71 pon what did Alexander insist ? How was he induced to change his exaction ? W hat terms 
were finally agreed upon? 50. What was the next movement of Alexander? To whom 
Jid he intrust the government of Macedon? What was Alexander's great object? Whal 
piepaiations did he set out with ? 















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B. C. 334.] FIRST CAMPAIGN. 243 

Assyria, Chaldea, Egypt, and all the countries from the Egean on the 
west to India on the east, and which, one hundred and fifty years 
before, had sent a host of five millions of persons, to overwhelm that 
very Greece which was now prepared to roll back the tide of war 
upon the shores of Asia. 

51. First Campaign in Asia. — b. o. 334.— (1.*) Amphipolis.— As- 
sembling his troops at this place in the spring of the year, Alexander 
marched at their head to (2.) The Hellespont. With Homer's Iliad 
for his guide, he embarked from the spot where Agamemnon's fleet 
bad weighed anchor eight hundred and fifty years before, and, taking 
the tiller in his hand, acted the part of steersman in the passage. 
Midway he lay on his oars, while a bull was sacrificed to Neptune 
and the Nereids, and then, pouring libations upon the waves from a 
golden vessel, resumed his course, and landed in the Achaian port, in 
imitation of his great predecessor. 

52. Here he raised altars to Minerva and Hercules, and then pro- 
ceeded to (3.) Troy. On this classic spot there was only a small vil- 
lage, still retaining the ancient name of Ilion. In a temple of Minerva 
were consecrated suits of armor, preserved since the Trojan war. He 
took down one of these, and hung up his own in its stead; and having 
performed sacrifices in honor of the Homeric heroes, and crowned the 
tomb of his ancestor Achilles, he proceeded on his way. No army 
attempted to stop his progress till he reached (4.) The Ford of the 
Geanious, a river which flowed from Mount Ida into the Propontis. 

53. Battle of Granicus. — Darius, hearing of the expedition of 
Alexander, had sent a commission to his satraps in this quarter, to 
seize the "Mad Boy ;" to whip him severely; to clothe him in mock 
purple, and bring him bound to Susa; to sink the ships in which he 
had crossed the Hellespont, and send his army in chains to the farther 
shore of the Red Sea. The Persian lords, in compliance with these 
gentle orders, assembled a large force on the banks of the Granicus ; 
but the Macedonians forded the river, and ascended the steep bank in 
the face of their opposition, fought a tremendous battle, and gained a 

* Let the pupil now look upon mnp No. 8, as Alexander's course is marked out. 

Questions. — 51. Where was Amphipolis? (See map No. 2, also number 1, Map No. 3.) 
[Note. — In reciting the campaigns of Alexander, take this method : Let the teacher say, 
'' No. 1," and the pupil answer, '• Amphipolis, a town in Macedonia, now Turkey in Europe. 
Here Alexander assembled his troops in the spring of 334 b. c, and march ed," &c. "No. 
2." — " The Hellespont, a strait leading from the Esrean to the Propontis, now called Darda- 
nelles." Here Alexander," &c] 52. " No. 3."—" Troy : the exact spot where it stood cannot 
now be determined. Here Alexander," &c. Did Paul ever visit this spot? (See 2 Tim 
iv. 13.) 53,54. u No. 4 '—"Granicus, a small river which falls into the Sea of Marmora. 
Here Alexander," &c. 



244 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 334 

glorious victory. The Persians lost one-tenth of their array, and nine 
officers of distinction. 

54. Alexander was first in the fight, and besides distinguishing him- 
self for his bravery, was rendered conspicuous by his buckler anil his 
crest, on both sides of which he wore a beautiful white plume. Two 
Persian officers made him their object of attack. One of them gave 
him a blow with a battle-ax which clove his helmet, and penetrated to 
the hair. As the barbarian raised his arm to repeat the stroke, Clitus, 
his foster-brother, ran him through with a spear. Alexander had now 
passed the gates of Asia, and made good his entrance into the dominion 
of the enemy. Twenty-five of his personal friends had been killed, to 
each of whom he erected a statue of brass; and upon the arms taken 
he caused to be inscribed, " Won by Alexander, of the barbarians of 
Asia." Most of the plate and furniture he sent home to his mother. 

55. (5.) Saedis. — The victory of Granicus intimidated the Persians 
and encouraged the Grecians. After inarching through a great extent 
of country with the quiet and comfort of peace, Alexander was met, 
about seven miles from Sardis, by the principal men of the city, who 
came to throw themselves upon his mercy. He received them kindly, 
and, entering the place with them, took possession of the citadel. 
Here he ordered a temple to be erected to Jupiter, on the spot where 
the palace of Croesus had stood. 

56. He remained at Sardis only three days, regulating the govern- 
ment and tribute of the province, and then, by one day's march, 
arrived at (6.) Ephesus, just as the Grecian party had overpowered 
the Persian, and were ready to hail him with joy at their gates. He 
gave orders that the tribute formerly paid to the Persians should be 
employed in rebuilding the temple of Diana; and having attended a 
magnificent sacrifice to this goddess, with all his troops, he moved 
forward to (7.) Miletus. His fleet entered the bay at the same time 
his forces appeared before the town, and the Milesians, yielding to the 
powerful motives furnished by the battering-rams, surrendered. 

57. (8.) Halicarnassus. — The fertile province of Caria, of which 

Questions— 54. Who commanded the Persians in the battle? Attn. Memnon, the 
Ehodian: his widow was the mother of Hercules. (See page 272.) 55. "Sardis, now called 
Suit, a 6inall village. Here Alexander, &c." What was written to the church of Sardis 
in liev. iii. 1-5? How long before Alexander did Croesus live? 56. Where was Ephesus ? 
(See map No. 2, also number C, map No. 3.) " Ephesus. Here Alexander save orders," &c. 
Who founded Ephesus? Am. Androchus, son of Codrus. Who laid the foundation of its 
grsatness? Ans. Lysander, when he built a fleet there. (See page 190.) What is written 
to the church of Ephesus ? (See Rev. ii. 1-5. " Miletus. Here," &c. When was the 
temple of Diana burned? 57. Give the location of Halicarnassus. What distinguished man 
was born there ? (See page 163.) 



B. c. 334.] FIRST CAMPAIGN. 215 

Halicarnassus was the capital, was ruled by Ada, a descendant of that 
famous Artemisia who fought in the fleet of Xerxes, and sister of thai 
still more famous Artemisia, who erected in honor of her deceased 
husband, Mausolus, the sepulchral monument reckoned among the 
u seven wonders of the world." An insurrection had been raised 
against Ada by her brother, and she was now deprived of a great part 
of her possessions. To this disputed point Alexander directed his 
course. Ada went out to meet him, adopted him for her son with 
great ceremony, gave him the keys of her strongest fortress, and so 
managed affairs that his march across Caria, of nearly one hundred 
miles, should be as through a friendly country. Halicarnassus sub- 
mitted for the same reasons that had influenced Miletus. 

58. Winter now approaching, he permitted a part of his army to 
return home, with authority to engage recruits; but he himself deter- 
mined that the season should not pass in inactivity. Committing the 
government of Caria to his good mother, Ada, he went forward 
through Lycia and Pamphylia with his chosen troops, every town 
submitting upon his approach, and sending presents. At (9.) Aspen- 
dus, on the river Eurymedon, the people made considerable resistance. 
As a punishment, Alexander obliged them to furnish double the quantity 
of horses and money that he required of the other vanquished states. 

59. (10.) Goedium. — In this place he visited the castle where was 
preserved with superstitious care the Gordian lenot. The story of the 
knot was this: In those early ages when remarkable events were so 
common, a Phrygian peasant named Gordius, being engaged in plow- 
ing, an eagle perched upon the yoke of his oxen, and quietly rode up 
and down the field. Interested in the phenomenon, he left his work 
and went to seek some one to explain the mystery. He wandered on 
till, approaching a village, he saw a girl drawing water from a spring, 
and finding upon inquiry that she belonged to a race of seers, he told 
her his business. She advised him to return, and sacrifice immediately 
to Jupiter. This led to a multitude of inquiries as to the manner in 
which the ceremony was to be performed; and finally he persuaded 
the girl to marry him and accompany him home. Nothing important 
occurred till a son of this match, named Midas, attained manhood. 

60. The Phrygians were then debating upon a change in their form 
of government, and while in assembly, were told that "A cart would 
bring them a king to relieve their troubles." Soon after, Gordius and 

Questions. — 57, 58. Who was Ada ? By what process had she been deprived of part of her 
possessions? State what took place at Halicarnassus. At Aspendus. Where was Aspen- 
dus? What happened to Cymon and Thrasybulus at the river Eurymedon ? 59, 60. Where 
was Gordium ? (See map.) Eelate the story of the Gordian knot. 



246 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 333. 

Midas came in a cart to the convention, and the people, believing the 
oracle to be thus answered, elected Midas king of Phrygia. In com- 
memoration of this event, Midas dedicated the cart and its appendages 
to the gods. The yoke was tied to the pole with a piece of the bark 
of the cornel-tree, in such a knot as no one could unloose. A tradi- 
tion arose, that whoever should untie that knot should be Lord of 
Asia ; and the failure of many ambitious men who had attempted it 
gave great importance to Alexander's visit. Some say that he cat the 
knot with his sword. Arrian asserts that he wrested the pin from the 
beam, and so took off the yoke. The means are of no consequence. 
He was believed to have accomplished the oracle, and to be the " des- 
tined lord of Asia." Here the troops that had been home rejoined 
the army. 

61. Second Campaign. — b. o. 333. — (11.) Ancyra. — At this place an 
embassy met the king of Macedonia, bringing offers of submission 
from (12.) Paphlagonia. Thence he marched southward through 
(13.) Cappadocia, every town of which surrendered, till he reached 
the lofty ridge of Taurus, which separates Asia Minor, from Syria. 
(14.) The Pass of Mount Taurus, called the Gate. The Persians 
thought to defend this important point, but the troops took flight at 
the approach of the Grecians, and Alexander encamped without 
molestation upon the plains of Cilicia. (15.) Tarsus. — The Persian 
forces stopped here, and Alexander hastened on to meet them. They 
fled again, but his exertion had so heated his blood, that the sight of 
the Cydnus, roiling its cool waters from the snow-clad summits of the 
mountains, was perfectly irresistible. He plunged in and amused 
himself some time in swimming, but he paid a severe penalty for his 
imprudence. A violent fever seized upon him and brought him down 
to the brink of the grave. 

62. (16.) Anchialus. — As soon as he was sufficiently recovered, 
Alexander sent Parmenio to secure the passes into Syria, while ho 
engaged in the more active business of reducing that part of the coun- 
try west of Tarsus. At Anchialus a monument was found, bearing 
this inscription : " Sardanapalus, son of Anacyndaraxes, in one day 
founded Anchilaus and Tarsus. Eat, drink, and play : all other human 

Questions. — 61. Where was Ancyra? What took place there? What at the Pass of 
Mount Taurus? Where was Tarsus? What took place at Tarsus? Why was Tarsus a 
free city ? Ans. The inhabitants took part with Cajsar in the civil wars, and were exempted 
from tribute when he became master of the world. It still remains, though only the shadow 
of its former self. What beautiful light was once seen on the Cydnus? (See page 808.) 
62. On what expedition did Alexander send Parmenio? In what business did Alexander 
engage? What was found at Anchialus? Has previous reference been made to the Sar 
danapalus monument in this book ': 



b. c. 333.]. SECOND CAMPAIGN. 247 

joys are not worth a fillip." Darius, alarmed by the rapid advances 
of the Greeks, determined at last to take the field and meet the "mad 
boy " in person. He drew up his troops near Babylon, with a pomp 
'ittle inferior to that displayed by Xerxes. The magi, carrying the 
Sacred Fire on altars of massy silver, led the van, chanting a solemn 
hymn. Three hundred and sixty-five youths vailed in Tyrian purple 
followed ; then came the splendid chariot of Jove, drawn by white 
horses; and then the magnificent steed of the sun. Then followed ten 
chariots richly embossed with silver and gold ; and the cavalry of the 
twelve nations, displaying arms and ensigns of the most curious work- 
manship. 

63. The Immortal Band took the next rank, and 15,000 men dressed 
in the costliest apparel, called the king's relations, followed. Then 
came the king himself, seated in a lofty chariot, so richly ornamented 
that it can hardly be described, with the images of Ninus and Belus 
and a golden eagle fixed upon the sides. Ten thousand men, armed 
with spears of silver and darts of glittering gold, followed, and 30,000 
infantry inclosed him as a body-guard. His mother, wife, and chil- 
dren also, surrounded by chosen attendants, traveled with the army 
and king, according to the custom of the Persians; and a multitude of 
nations brought up the rear. 

64. With this vast cavalcade of near a million of souls, resembling 
more a triumphal procession than a host armed for battle, Darius 
moved from the plains of the Euphrates northward toward the moun- 
tains of Syria, in quest of a handful of Greeks, who had already 
wrested from him the fertile territory of Asia Minor. As Darius I. 
had his Hippias, and Xerxes his Demaratus, so this king had also his 
attendant Grecian exile, Charidemus. While reviewing his immense 
army, Darius turned to Charidemus, and inquired if even the sight of 
such a multitude would not be sufficient to frighten Alexander. The 
Grecian, proud of the superiority of his countrymen, replied with such 
a cutting comparions between troops nurtured in the lap of luxury 
jind those taught by necessity to meet danger in the most appalling 
forms, as displeased his royal patron. Darius, naturally mild and 
gentle, was now so agitated by jealousy and fear that he ordered his 
faithful monitor to instant execution. 

65. (17.) Issus. — The mighty host commanded by Darius here came 
to an engagement with the Grecians, and was entirely defeated. The 

Questio?is. — 62, 63. 64. Upon what did Darius at last determine? Give an account of 
the number and kind of forces Darius had. Itelate the circumstances of Charidemus" 9 
death. How long had he been in Persia? 65. Give an account of the battle of Issus, 
[Note, -lieinember that this is the first battle where the two monurchs fought in person. J 



248 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 333. 

moment Darius saw his troops giving way he retreated with the greatest 
precipitation, and getting into difficult places, where his chariot could 
not pass, he threw down his bow, shield, and royal mantle, and fled 
on horseback. Some of his army struck into the high road to Persia ; 
some ran into the woods, or wandered among the mountains ; 100,000 
of his men were left dead upon the field ; and his mother, queen, and 
children were taken prisoners in the camp. 

66. The royal tent, furnished with vessels of gold and every specie? 
of eastern luxury, was a curiosity to the hardy Macedonian king. 
After having surveyed the silken drapery, tasted the delicious wines, 
and inhaled the luscious perfumes, he exclaimed contemptuously, 
"This, then, it is to be a king!" One beautiful casket he appro- 
priated to himself. The manuscript of Homer's Iliad, prepared for 
him by Aristotle, was placed into it, and ever afterward styled the 
Casket copy. From the tent of Darius he proceeded to that of the 
princesses. The kindness and generosity with which he treated them 
forms one of the most beautiful traits in his history. The child of 
Darius, seing a man in armor, stretched out his hands to the con- 
queror, and Alexander, taking him in his arms, caressed him with 
the utmost tenderness.* To the ladies the victor granted every privi- 
lege demanded by Persian custom. 

67. (18.) Damascus. — This was a treasure city of Darius, and Alex- 
ander sent Parmenio to take it. The governor surrendered at once, 
and such vast quantities of spoils fell into the hands of the victors as 
loaded 7,000 beasts, besides heaps of valuable jewelry. (19.) Sidon. — 
The inhabitants of this city gave up their keys with joy to the con- 
queror. While in Syria, he received a letter from Darius, in which 
that monarch offered any sum of money for the ransom of his family, 
and desired conditions of peace. The king of Macedonia replied by 
alluding to the invasions of Greece by the Persians. He charged 
Darius with stirring up the Greeks against Macedonia, and procuring 
the death of his father. 

68. (20.) Tyre. — As he proceeded along the coast of Phenicia, a 
deputation met him from Tyre, bringing offers of friendship, but not 

* The boy could not have mistaken him for his father, for Darius was of a tall, elegant 
form, while Alexander was rather short, and ungraceful in his person. 

Questions.— Q5. What is said of the royal tent ? Of Alexander's conduct after the battle ? 
Of that of Darius' s child? 67. How is Damascus situated? State how it was taken. 
What took place there? State how Sidon was taken. Why were the Sidonians so willing 
to surrender? Ans. They bated the Persians for having miserably destroyed their city. 
So much gold was melted in its conflagration that Ochus sold the ashen lor large sums of 
money. What letter is spoken of ? What was Alexander's reply ? 63. Where was Tyre ? 
What negotiations took place? 



B. c. 332.] SECOND CAMPAIGN. 2 ±9 

of submission. He thanked them for their amicable professions, and 
expressed his intention of visiting the city to worship the Tyrian Her- 
cules. The gates were closed when he arrived, and he received a 
polite intimation that the Tyrians did not wish to admit him. There- 
upon, he resolved to besiege the place. Old Tyre had been destroyed 
by Nebuchadnezzar 240 years before ; but New Tyre, standing on an 
island half a mile from the shore, was at this time the strongest mari- 
time town in the world. Its walls were 100 feet high and 18 miles in 
circuit. With a fleet obtained from Sidon and Cyprus, Alexander 
blockaded it by sea ; while by land he undertook the carrying out a 
mole from Old Tyre to the rocky ramparts of the new city. 

69. The Tyrians defended themselves with the most determined 
bravery. They destroyed the mole several times; they caught tho 
workmen with grappling-irons, and dragged them within the walls ; 
they sent out fire-ships, and burnt many galleys, and poured down 
showers of heated sand upon the besiegers, which, penetrating through 
the chinks of the armor, burned to the very bone. For six months 
this dreadful siege lasted, and then Tyre was " taken but not ren 
dered." From house to house, and from street to street, every inch 
of ground was disputed ; mercy was neither asked nor given, until a 
great part of the garrison had fallen. Eight thousand Tyrians fell in 
the onslaught, and thirty thousand captives were sold into slavery. 
While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Alexander received another 
letter from Darius, in which the monarch offered him his daughter in 
marriage, and the whole country from the Euphrates to the Mediter- 
ranean as her dowry. "If I were Alexander,'' said Parmenio, "I 
would accept it." — " So would I, were I Parmenio," said the king. 

70. (21.) Jerusalem. — From Phenicia, Alexander marched to Pales- 
tine. The Jews, whose city and tomple had been rebuilt by the Per- 
sians, loved their benefactors, and faithfully adhered to their cause. 
It was therefore not without terror that they heard of the approach 
of the victorious commander at Issus. Joseplius says that Jaddua, the 
high priest, clothed in his sacred robes, went out to meet Alexander, 

Questions.— 68, 69. By whom and when had Old Tyre been destroyed ? What was the 
condition of New Tyre? How did Alexander proceed against the place? How did the 
Tynans defend themselves ? How long did the siege last? Describe the taking of the city. 
"When was it taken ? Ans. On the 20th of August, b. c. 332. When did Alexander receive 
a second letter from Darius? What was the purport of the letter? What conversation 
took place between Alexander and Parmenio? Read Is. xxiii. 10, 11 ; Ezek. xxvii. 10-13, 16, 
IS, 19, 23-25, 34, 35; and xxviii. 7, S; Zech. ix. 3-5, 12, 13, 16. 70. Why were the Jews faith- 
ful to the Persians? What is related of Jaddua? What privilege did Alexander grant the 
Jew.s? Ans. He exempted them from paying tribute every seventh year, for in that year 
*uey neither sowed nor reaped, liead Daniel viii. 20-22. 
II* 



250 GREECE— MACEDONIA. [b. c. 332 

and no sooner did the Macedonian monarch behold him than he pros- 
trated himself, and worshiped the holy name inscribed upon his 
miter. When the astonished nobles inquired the reason of this strange 
reverence, he told them that such a person had appeared to him in a 
vision, and invited him to undertake the conquest of Asia. Jaddna 
pointed out to him those passages in the book of Daniel where his 
rapid conquests were foretold, and, after some more conversation, was 
dismissed in a friendly manner. 

71. (22.) Gaza was situated two miles from the sea, on a lofty rook, 
surrounded by a territory of deep sand. The governor refused to 
surrender, and Alexander would not leave an unconquered place 
behind him. Timber and earth were brought from a distance, a 
mound formed as high as the walls, and battering-rams erected. 
After a great expense of time, money, and lives, the place fell into the 
hands of the Greeks. Every man of the garrison died fighting. The 
governor was taken alive, 'and put to death in the most horrid manner. 
(23. ) Pelusium. — In seven days 1 march from Gaza, Alexander arrived 
with his army before this place, at the same time that his fleet sailed 
into the harbor. The Egyptians, haters of the Persians since the days 
of Cambyses, received him with joy, and thus he became the ac- 
knowledged lord of this fertile and wealthy country without striking 
a blow. 

72. (24.) Heliopolis, the city of the Sun. To know the country, 
and arrange the government of the people who had become his peace- 
ful subjects, he advanced up the right bank of the Nile to Heliopolis, 
where he crossed the river and proceeded to (25.) Memphis, the place 
of the tombs and treasures of the Egyptian kings. (26.) Alexandeia. 
Learning that Egypt had no convenient seaport, he explored the coast 
of the Mediterranean till he reached a suitable point, where he founded 
the city which still bears his name.* Far within that vast tract of 
sand known as the Lybian Desert, lay the beautiful oasis containing 
the temple of Jupiter Amnion. An insatiable desire to be considered 
rather a god than a man, had, by the conversation of his mother, been 
instilled into the mind of Alexander. Stimulated by this foolish vanity, 
he marched with a small escort along the seacoast about 200 miles, 
to (27.) Paeetonium. 

* It was marked out in the shape of a Macedonian cloak. 

Questions. — 71. How was Gaza situated ? How was the place taken ? How was Pi Insium 
6ituated? How was it taki-n? 72. What took place at Heliopolis > What is said of Mem- 
phis? By whom was the city of Alexandria founded? What led to the act? When was 
the city founded? An*, b. c. 332. Where was the temple of Jupiter Amnion? What 
great desire did Alexander have ? How did he contract the desire? 



B. c. 331.] THIRD CAMPAIGN. 251 

73. Thence he turned south, and traversing those fields which a 
tropical sun renders ever arid and sterile, he arrived safely at (28.) 
The Temple of Jupiter Ammon. — The island of delightful green, 
which greeted his eyes on emerging from the vast ocean of sand, was 
only about five miles across, each way. The air was pleasantly cool ; 
springs of the finest water were plentiful; and beneatli the shade of 
lofty trees, whose spreading branches shut out the scorching rays of 
the sun, the weary band reposed after their perilous and fatiguing 
journey. The priest confirmed the monarch's pretensions, and lie left 
the temple the acknowledged son of the god! Thence he returned 
again to (25.) Memphis, where embassadors from the states of 
Greece were waiting to congratulate him on his success. 

74. Third Campaign. — p. c. 331. — While Alexander wintered in 
Egypt a re-enforcement from Greece arrived, and upon the opening of 
spring he moved again to (20.) Tyre, the place appointed for the 
meeting of the fleet, army, and embassies. Thither the Athenian 
ship Paralus conveyed ministers from the different republics, who 
acquainted him with the state of affairs in his own country. After 
having made arrangements for the security of Greece he went on his 
way, and about the beginning of June reached (29.) Thapsaous, the 
place where young Cyrus crossed the Euphrates with his Grecian 
troops. The bridges were broken down, and a body of Persians stood 
ready to dispute his passage ; but their hearts failed at his approach, 
and, taking flight, they left the Greeks to repair the bridges and con- 
tinue their route unmolested. It was Alexander's intention to march 
immediately to Babylon; but learning that Darius had assembled a 
larger force than he commanded at Issus, and was waiting his approach 
on the eastern bank of the Tigris, he directed his course thither, and 
without obstruction crossed that rapid river at a ford. 

75. (30.) Arbela. — Here Darius deposited his heavy baggage and 
military stores; and very judiciously chose his station about six miles 
from the town, in a place suitable for the action of his cavalry and 
scythe-armed chariots. Alexander approached, and prepared for bat- 
tle. That night he slept soundly, though Darius reviewed his troops 
by torch-light, and the murmur of the immense multitude seemed like 
the roaring of the sea when the waters are agitated by the violence of 
the wind. Two years after the victory at Issus, Alexander again 



Questions.— -73. By what route did he reach the temple of Jupiter Ammon ? Describe 
the island. What did the priest do? To what place did Alexander then so '? Where was 
Memphis? 74. What arrangement did Alexander make to get '.nformation from Greece? 
What took place at Thapsacus? Where was Thapsacus? Why did not Alexander proceed 
direct to Babylon? 75. Where was Arbela.-' What took place there? An*. A battle. 



252 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 331 

mounted Bucephalus, as a signal for battle with the monarch of 
Asia. He wore a short coat closely girt about him ; over that, a 
breastplate of linen strongly quilted, which had been found among the 
spoils of Issus. His helmet of polished iron shone like silver. A 
superb belt, given him by the Rhodians, encircled his waist, from 
which was suspended a sword of the finest temper. Aristander the 
soothsayer rode by his side, clothed in a white robe and a golden 
crown. 

76. Just as they were advancing, an eagle appeared above their 
heads and slowly sailed toward the enemy. As soon as the army 
caught sight of the noble bird, they rushed on like a torrent to the 
fight. Alexander, following the .example of Epaminoudas, directed 
his etforts to one point, and selected for that point the spot where 
Darius rode upon his lofty chariot in the midst of his royal forces. 
The king of Asia sustained himself much better than on the former 
occasion ; but the onset of the Macedonians was so terrible, that his 
body-guard were seized with consternation and fled. A few of the 
bravest of them indeed lost their lives in defending their sovereign ; 
and falling in heaps, one upon another, strove to stop the pursuit by 
clinging in the pangs of death to the Macedonians, and catching hold 
of the legs of the horses, as they pranced over their prostrate bodies. 

77. Darius had now the most dreadful dangers about him. His 
defenders were driven back upon him ; the wheels of his chariot 
became entangled among the dead bodies, so that it was almost impos- 
sible to turn it ; and the horses, plunging among heaps of slain, 
bounded up and down, and no longer obeyed the charioteer. Again 
lie quitted his chariot, and, throwing away his arras, fled on horseback. 
At first, Alexander pushed on after him; but at dark abandoned the 
pursuit, and returned to the camp. About midnight, with a band of 
chosen troops, he rode off to Arbela, and, surprising the town, gained 
possession of it without bloodshed. The Persian empire appearing to 
be entirely destroyed by the defeat at Arbela, Alexander was acknow- 
ledged king of Asia. Without waiting for the formal abdication or 
destruction of Darius, he turned to secure the treasures which the 
fugitive monarch had left in his grasp. 

78. (31.) Babylon. — As the conqueror approached this city he was 
met by the whole population, following in solemn procession the 
nobles and priests, who brought him presents, and surrendered the 

Questio?i8. — 75, 76, 77. How was Alexander attired for the battle. ? What is said of Aris- 
tander? Of an eagle ? Give an account of the battle. What is said of the dangers which 
beset Darius during the battle? Of his escape? What were the occurrences after the 
battle? 73. Where was Babylon ? How did Alexander get possession of Babylon ? 



B. C. 331.] TniRD CAMPAIGN. 253 

citadel, treasury, and town into his hands. The ready submission of 
liis new subjects so pleased Alexander, that he ordered the former 
temples to be restored, and assisted himself at a sacrifice of Belus. 
(82.) Sirs a was the common winter residence of the Persian court. 
Before Alexander reached this place the son of the governor met him, 
assuring him that the gates were open to receive him, and a treasury, 
containing a sum equal to $45,000,000, waiting his disposal. 

79. The spoils found in Susa were such as no other city ever pre- 
sented to a conqueror. There were stuffs of such exquisite purple, 
that though treasured 190 years, they still retained their freshness and 
beauty; splendid vases containing the waters of the Nile and Danube, 
which the Persians kept among their precious things, to show the 
extent of their dominions; and, what Alexander valued more than all, 
the brazen statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton,* which Xerxes had 
stolen from Greece, and which the autocrator-general now sent back 
as a peace-offering to the Athenians. Here he reinstated the family 
of Darius in the palace where they had passed the happy years of 
power ; and, having committed the administration of affairs to a Per- 
sian, went on his way. 

80. The passage from Susa to Persepolis was rough and difficult, 
leading over mountains inhabited by savage tribes, to whom even the 
kings of Persia had paid toll ; but the rapidity of Alexander's move- 
ments disconcerted their plans of defense, and the Greeks took posses- 
sion of their strongholds. The officers of Darius fled from the city at 
his approach, not even stopping to plunder the treasury of Cyrus, in 
which Alexander found as much coin as he did at Susa, and such 
quantities of rich movables as loaded 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. 
He stayed in this place four months, that his troops might rest after 
their fatigues, and prepare for the spring campaign. The first time he 
sat down on the throne of the Persian kings, under a golden canopy, 
an old Corinthian exclaimed, while the tears streamed from his eyes, 
" What a pleasure have those Greeks missed who died without seeing 
Alexander seated on the throne of Darius! " 

81. Before breaking up his winter quarters he made a great enter- 

* After the banishment of the Pisistratidse, Harmodius and Aristogiton received almost 
heroic honors. Statues of the finest brass were erected to their memory, and their names 
were held in the highest veneration. 

Questions. — 78. Where was Susa? How did Alexander get possession of Susa? 19. 
What spoils were found in Susa? What is said of Alexander's treatment of the family of 
Darius? 80. Where was Persepolis? (33.) What rapid movements did Alexander make ? 
What is said in connection with his sitting on the throne of the Persian kings? 81. What 
is said of the entertainment provided by Alexander? 



254: GREECE — MACEDONIA. [v.. c. 330 

tainment, at which all the guests drank to excess. An Athenian cour- 
tesan, Thais, having studiously praised the lord of the feast during the 
whole evening, suggested the idea of closing the banquet by a confla- 
gration of the royal palace, in revenge for the burning of Athens by 
Xerxes; and she desired to light the flame with her own hands, that 
it might be said, the women had taken better vengeance upon the Per- 
sians than all the generals of Greece. The whim struck the conqueror 
favorably; and the guests, heated with wine, received the proposition 
with acclamations. Immediately they rose from the table, and follow- 
ing Thais, with lighted tapers in their hands, proceeded to set fire to 
every part of the grand palace, accompanying the exploit with loud 
peals of mirth and music. 

82. b. c. 330. Fourth Campaign. — From the fatal overthrow at 
Arbela, Darius had proceeded to Ecbatana, hoping to raise an army 
there of sufficient force to preserve to him the ancient kingdom of 
Media, with Bactria and Sogdiana ; but finding that a universal panic 
Lad seized his soldiers, he gave up all hopes of regaining his lost king- 
dom, and sought only to escape with the relics of his treasure to some 
distant province. Five days before Alexander reached (34.) Ecba- 
tana, the defeated monarch left that city, and retreated through the 
passes of the mountains that skirt the Caspian Sea. Alexander stopped 
long enough to reorganize his army, to reward his soldiers with 
princely munificence, to re-engage those who wished still to push their 
fortunes in his service, to dismiss those weary of campaigns and vic- 
tories, and to settle the affairs of the province. 

83. Then, with a chosen band, he resumed the pursuit of Darius. 
After marching eleven days so rapidly that many horses died of fatigue, 
he received tidings, tending rather to increase than retard his speed. 
He learned from two of Darius's servants that Bessus, governor of Bac- 
tria, and another satrap, had seized their sovereign, and carried him 
off a close prisoner ; that it was their intention, if Alexander overtook 
them, to deliver him up, and so gain favor for themselves ; or, if they 
succeeded in escaping, to depose him, and usurp the government of 
the northern provinces. This news roused every energy of Alexander, 
lie traveled day and night without intermission till he came up with 

Questions. — 81. Of the conflagration ? What can you state of the ruins of the palace ? 
Arts. The ruins called Ohilminar. or Forty Columns, near Sclinaz. are supposed to he the 
remains of the palace burned by Thais. [Note. — Now let the pupil trace Alexander's course 
on a map ] 82. Why had Darius gone to Ecbatma? Why was he not successful in this? 
How ii, ar did Alexander come to capturing Darius in Ecbatana? How long did Alexander 
6top there? 83. Give an account of Alexander's further pursuit of Darius. Who was 
Bessus? Upon what did Bessus determine? How was he loiled ? 



b ?. 3:50.] FOURTH CAMPAIGN. 255 

tl-e traitors (or rather with their prisoner), for JBessus, finding himself 
I'nable to push on with the chariot as fast as necessary, had given 
Darius several severe wounds, and left him weltering in his blood. 

84. Only about sixty of the Macedonians were able to keep pace 
with Alexander till he reached the enemy's camp. There they rode 
over scattered garments, and furniture, and golden vessels ; and, pass- 
ing a number of carriages filled with deserted women and children, 
came to the chariot where Darius lay in the agonies of death. He 
called for a drink of water, and after having quenched his thirst with 
the cooling draught, stretched out his hand to the soidier that brought 
It, saying, "Friend, this fills up the measure of my misfortunes, to 
think I am not able to reward thee for this act of kindness. But 
Alexander will not let thee go without a recompense, and the gods 
will reward him for his humanity to my mother, my wife, and my 
children. Tell him I gave thee my hand in his stead, and convey to 
him the only pledge I am able to give of my gratitude and affection." 
When Alexander came up, Darius was already dead. The conqueror 
was greatly afflicted at the tragical end of his rival. He threw his 
own robe over the bleeding body, and with generous care caused it to 
be conveyed to Susa, where the queen, Sisygambis, interred it with 
funeral honors. 

85. Meanwhile, the conspirators betook themselves to the lofty 
wooded mountains of (35.) Hyecania, where Bessus, adopting the 
name of Artaxerxes, prepared to vindicate his title to the throne of 
Persia. Alexander continued the pursuit, and conquered the province ; 
but Bessus made his escape with a body of 600 horse. Thus successful 
in all his enterprises against the barbarians, Alexander was wounded 
by a domestic affliction, for which the most brilliant victory could not 
compensate'. Parmenio had been the "one general" whom Philip 
loved and trusted; the able counselor and guide of Alexander in his 
youth, and his companion in all his toilsome campaigns. Philotas, the 
son of Parmenio, had been one of the monarch's most intimate and 
favored friends from childhood. This Philotas was accused of treason, 
and being put upon the rack, confessed the crime, and named his 
father as one of the accomplices. 

86. An assembly of the Macedonians was called, and the father and 
son were both condemned to die. Philotas was stoned to death, and 

Questions.— $A. Give an account of Alexander's final pursuit. Give an account of the 
deatb of Darius. Of Alexander's care for the body of Darius. 85, 86. Where was Hyr- 
cania? What name did Bessus adopt? What is said of him? Who was Parmenio ? Who 
1 hilutas? What accusation was brought against Philotas? What confession di 1 he make ? 
What sentence was passed? How was the sentence carried out? 



256 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 329. 

a particular friend of Parmenio's was sent into Media, where that 
venerable general was stationed, to execute the sentence upon him. 
Parmenio was walking in his park, and, seeing his friend approaching, 
ran to embrace him, inquiring after his son and his king with the 
greatest tenderness. The assassin gave him a letter from Alexander, 
and, while he was reading it, stabbed him in the side, repeating his 
blows till assured he was dead. Thus fell this great man, illustrious 
both in peace and war. He was seventy years of age, and had served 
his sovereign with fidelity and zeal in numberless campaigns ; two of 
his sons had died in battle, and with the third and last he himself fell 
a victim to the suspicions which an infamous boy had aroused, and 
vicious favorites had fostered in the mind of the king, for whom he 
had so often hazarded his life. 

87. The lust of power and the pride of dominion had already taken 
deep root in the mind of Alexander. He was surrounded by flatterers, 
and his foolish ambition to be considered a god exposed the weak 
points in his character. Philotas ridiculed this pretension, and thus 
plucked down ruin upon his own head ; for his guilt, to say the least, 
was not fully proved. Knowing that the execution of these distin- 
guished individuals might create discontent, Alexander again mar- 
shaled his forces and set out after Bessus, who had retreated to North- 
ern India, laying waste the country behind him. He met with no 
particular adventure till he reached the head waters of the Indus. 
Winter overtaking him there, he employed his troops in building & 
city, which he named (36.) Alexandria. It is still a flourishing place 
on the great route of Candahar, by which caravans go through Afgha- 
nistan and Northern India to Agra and Lahore. 

88. b. o. 329. — Fifth Campaign. — Observing the hardiness and 
vigor of the natives of these climates, he enrolled 30,000 boys among 
his followers, and caused them to be trained in the Macedonian dis- 
cipline. Meanwhile, Bessus had established himself in Bactria, and 
Alexander, anxious to come upon him before he was prepared, moved 
early in the spring to the north. The soldiers, tired of marches and 
countermarches, and thinking the object of their expedition already 
accomplished by the subjection of Persia and the death of Darius, 

Questions. — 86. What further is said of Parmenio? What observation has been made 
about Alexander's successes? Ans. It has been stated that "Parmenio obtained many 
victories without Alexander, but Alexander not one without Parmenio." 87. What was the 
foolish ambition of Alexander? To what did it lead? Why did Alexander soon marshal 
his forces again ? What place did he reach by winter ? What is said of the place? How is it 
located? (See map No. 1.) 88. How did Alexander add 30,000 troops to his army ? Where 
had Bessus established himself? Where was Bactria ? (See map No. 1, number 37.) What 
eaused murmurings in the camp of Alexander ? 



B. c. 329.1 FIFTH CAMPAIGN. 257 

were so little pleased with the idea of traveling to the north while 
the snow was yet upon the ground, that nothing but murmurings and 
repinings was heard within the camp. Alexander called them all 
together, and addressed them as his friends and supporters, so mixing 
the tender with the animating in his speech, that he excited their 
sympathies, and raised their drooping spirits; and they declared them- 
selves willing to follow wherever he should lead. Profiting by this 
favorable disposition, he made all speed into Bactriana. 

89. (37.) Baotria and (38.) Aorni, the two principal cities of the 
province, were taken by assault, and all the rest quietly submitted. 
After crossing the river Oxus on skins stuffed with straw, he received 
tidings of Bessus. Two of the traitor's servants, imitating his example, 
had treated him in the same manner that he treated his royal master. 
They seized his person, forced the diadem from his head, tore the royal 
robe of Darius from his shoulders, set him on horseback, and brought 
him bound to Alexander. The miserable Bessus was sent to the 
mother of Darius to receive his doom. She ordered four trees to be 
bent down, and the limbs of the criminal to be fastened to them ; the 
trees were then permitted to fly back, each bearing away its portion of 
his body. (39.) Sogdiana. — Here Alexander rested with his army, while 
horses and other recruits were collected for the invasion of Scythia. 

90. Nothing of importance occurred till he reached (40.) The Jax- 
arthes. Scythia in Europe and Scythia in Asia, the great fountains 
from which issued, in later times, the fierce warriors of Ghengis-Khan 
and Timurlane, from which came forth Huns and Turks upon their 
work of destruction, were at this time inhabited by wandering tribes, 
which Alexander could have no motive to molest. Nevertheless, to 
fortify his empire against their incursions, he built upon the Jaxarthes 
a city, and called it Alexandria, which is the last one we shall notice, 
though in his travels he founded no less than twenty cities of this 
name. The u Speech of the Scythian embassadors to Alexander," so 
justly celebrated, is too long for insertion here; nor will it be neces- 
sary to detail the particulars of the hostilities in which he soon after 
engaged with this barbarous people. 

91. He spent the winter in Bactria, and the historian, in speaking of 
him here, mentions that he had changed the Macedonian for the Per- 

Questions. — 88. How did he quiet the murmurs? 89. What was Alexander's success in 
Bactriana? How did he cross the Oxus? By what name is the Oxus now known? Arts. 
Jihoon or Gihon. How was Bessus at last taken? What was his fate? Where was Sog- 
diana located ? (See map No. 1.) What is it now called? Ans. Samarcand. 90. What is 
the Jaxarthes now called? Ans. The Sihon. What city did Alexander huild on that 
river? Why did he build it? What other cities did he found? 91. What is said of Alex- 
ander's change of costume and manners? 



258 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [u. c. 327. 

sian costume. Indeed, Alexander's conformity to the luxurious habits 
of the East had weakened his virtues, and rendered him odious to 
many of his most faithful friends. It was five years since he left 
Macedonia, with a comparatively small army; he was now surrounded 
by numbers, among whom there were as many Asiatics as Greeks, and 
the adoption of the manners and customs of the nations he had sub- 
jugated seemed to him the dictate of profound policy; while, to the 
veterans who had retained the native simplicity of Grecian manners, 
it seemed but another manifestation of that vanity which claimed the 
worship rendered only to the gods. 

92. b. c. 328. Sixth Campaign. — The summer of 328 was spent 
in quelling a revolt among the Sogdians, of which no particulars of 
interest are recorded, except that Spitamenes, the leader of it, was the 
individual who betrayed Bessus. He perished, like his predecessors, 
by the hands of false friends, who cut off his head, and earned it as a 
valuable present to Alexander. 

93. b. c. 327. Seventh Campaign. — "Winter still lingered in the 
lap of spring," when Alexander moved to the destruction of (41.) The 
tioGniAN Rock, the last stronghold which resisted his power. It was 
a mountain fortress, built upon a rock so lofty that its head was 
crowned with perpetual snows. When summoned to surrender, Oxy- 
artes, the governor, looked proudly down upon the herald, and in- 
quired " if Alexander had provided himself with winged soldiers." 
The conqueror could not bear this taunt. He offered immense sums 
to those who would scale the cliff". A band of the bravest youtbs 
undertook the perilous adventure, and succeeded by driving iron pins 
into the congealed snow, and suspending scaling-ladders upon them. 
The barbarians, thinking they must have been assisted by invisible 
beings, surrendered immediately upon their summons ; and Roxana, 
the beautiful daughter of the governor, so captivated the conqueror 
that he made her the partner of his throne. 

94. Death of Clitus. — Persia and its environs were now subdued, 
and Alexander projected the conquest of India. Before leaving these 
provinces, he regulated the government and committed it to Clitus, a 
valued friend, who had saved his life at the Granicus. As usual, the 
Macedonians prefaced the expedition with sacrifices and feasts. While 
they sat drinking, the conversation turned upon the history of Castor 

Questions.— -92. How was the summer of 32S spent? What is said of Spitamenes? 93. 
What was the Sogdian Rock? Where was it situated? Who, in 327, was the governor? 
What inquiry did he make of Alexander? State how the place was taken. Who was 
Roxana? What is said of her? 94 What conquests had Alexander completed in 327? 
V, hat charge wa3 committed to Clitus? 



B.C. 327.] SEVENTH CAMPAIGN. 259 

and Pollux, said to be the sons of Jupiter. This, by association, 
brought up Alexander's pretensions to the same high birth. The 
king, indeed, boasted not a little of his exploits, and the courtiers 
about him chimed in with the grossest flattery. 

95. Clitus, heated with wine, took upon himself the office of 
reprover, contending that Philip was a greater man than his son, and 
that Alexander owed his victories not so much to his own prowess, as 
to the brave men by whom he had been supported. Alexander 
retorted ; and Clitus, far from giving up the dispute at the instigation 
of the more temperate part of the company, called upon his king "To 
speak out what he had to say, or not invite freemen to his table, who 
would speak out their sentiments without reserve. But perhaps," 
continued he, "it were better to pass your life with barbarians and 
slaves, who will worship your Persian girdle and white robe without 
scruple." Alexander, no longer able to restrain his anger, threw an 
apple in his face, and then looked about for his sword. The company 
interposed, and forced Clitus from the room ; but he soon returned by 
another door, singing, in a bold and insolent tone, these lines from 
Euripides: — 

" Are these your customs? Is it thus that Greece 
Ke wards her combatants? Shall one man claim 
The trophies won by thousands ?" 

96. Alexander's fury knew no bounds. He sprang from the table, 
snatched a spear from one of the guards, and laid his foster brother 
dead at his feet, exclaiming, " Go now to Philip and Parmenio." The 
blood of his friend sobered him in a moment; he threw himself upon 
his body, forced out the javelin, and would have dispatched himself 
with it, had not the guards carried him by force to his apartment. 
ITe passed that night and all the next day in the deepest anguish, and 
it was some time before his philosopher-courtiers could comfort him. 
Not long after, a conspiracy was discovered among the royal pages. 
Calisthenes, nephew of Aristotle, who had accompanied Alexander 
partly as a philosopher, and partly to collect valuable materials for 
scientific research, was implicated.* All the conspirators were put to 
death except Callisthenes. He was mutilated, and carried about with 
the army in an iron cage, until he terminated his life by poison. 

* Some authors say Calisthenes was put to death because he promised to adore Alexan- 
der, and broke his word. This was the man who transcribed the Chaldean records found in 
the fane of Bel us. 

Questions. — 95. Relate the controversy that took place. 06. What was the sequel of 
ihe dispute? Did Alexander regret his rashness? How did he manifest his regret! 
What is said of a conspiracy that afterward occurred ? 



200 GREECE- MACEDONIA. [b. c. 327. 

97. b, o. 327. Eighth Campaign. — Conquest of India. — Alexan- 
der Laving set out for the conquest of Asia with a land force of less 
than 40,000 men, and with a revenue too scanty for their support, 
now, with the income of the Persian Empire, too vast for computation, 
commanded an army which could scarcely be numbered. He had 
read in the Grecian fables that Hercules and Bacchus, both sons of 
Jupiter, had marched as far as India, and he determined to outdo his 
brothers, and go still farther. Late in the spring of the year 826, he 
broke up his camp in Bactria, and proceeded with rapid march to his 
new field of glory. It will not be necessary to specify all his adven- 
tures. Nothing was found capable of resisting his power. He took 
eight towns by storm, fought many battles, crossed the Indus, and 
went on to meet an Indian king beyond the Hydaspes, whom fame 
reported to be worthy of his arms. Between these two rivers he 
took up his winter quarters. 

98. b. c. 325. Ninth Campaign. — (49.) The Hydaspes was swollen 
with the melting of the snows and the spring rains, when the Gre- 
cians began to make preparations for crossing. Porus (the Indian 
king), aware of Alexander's intention, assembled his army on the 
banks, determined to dispute his passage; but our hero had ingenuity 
as well as courage. Every night he sent out bodies of cavalry, with 
orders to sound their trumpets and raise their war-cry, as if preparing 
to force their way across the river. Porus at first drew out his men 
at every fresh alarm ; but, finding it amounted to nothing, he suffered 
his troops to enjoy their repose, and neglected watching the fords 
altogether. Every thing fell out as Alexander had calculated. One 
dark night, when a dreadful thunder-storm shook the surrounding 
bills, and drowned the noise of the embarkation, the Macedonians 
crossed an arm of the river to a small island densely wooded, and 
before morning were far advanced in preparation for passing the other 
branch of the stream. 

99. The Indian outposts sent immediate notice of the enemy's ap- 
proach to Porus; but as his attention was engaged with a body of 
horse, which appeared about to attempt the fords opposite the place 
where he had stationed himself, he considered the alarm up the stream 
as a feint, and merely sent his son thither with a small band. Alex- 
ander effected a landing in safety, attacked the Indian cavalry, and 
slew the son of Porus. Both sides then prepared for a decisive battle. 

Questions. — 97. When did Alexander break up his camp in Bactria? What great object 
did he have in view? Why was he so actuated? What were his successes? Between 
what two rivers did he quarter during the winter? 9S, 99.100. Who was Poms? "What 
Ingenuity did Alexander manifest? Give an account of the battle. 



B.C. 327.] NINTH CAMPAIGN. 261 

Porus placed his cavalry and war-chariots upon the wings, drew up 
his elephants in front of his line, and his infantry in a solid mass in 
the rear. The charge was violent and bloody; the elephants threw 
the Greeks into confusion just as the left wing of the Indians was put 
to flight ; but as the Macedonian light troops came up and immediately 
slew their guides, these unwieldy animals, not knowing which way to 
go, and irritated by wounds, ran round the field and increased the 
general tumult. 

100. Porus, who was easily distinguished from all others by his 
stature, bravery, and the size of the elephant on which he rode, fought 
with the most determined courage. Even after the fortune of the day 
was lost he remained upon the field, striving to rally his forces and 
retrieve his honor. The noble beast on which he was mounted took 
the greatest care of his person; and when he perceived him ready to 
sink under the multitude of weapons showered upon him, he kneeled 
down in the softest manner, and with his proboscis gently drew 
every dart from his body. 

101. Porus was taken prisoner and brought before Alexander, who 
inquired of the fallen monarch how he would like to be treated. 
" Like a king," was the proud reply. Delighted at finding in another 
sentiments so congenial to his own, Alexander distinguished Porus 
with unusual favors; for he not only restored to him all his own 
dominions, but added very extensive territories to them, so that though 
he subdued him as king of one nation, he left him acting as emperor 
of a country which contained fifteen nations, 37 populous cities, and 
numerous flourishing villages. On the field of battle the Macedonians 
threw up the walls of Victory-town, in commemoration of their suc- 
cess, and, at the point where they crossed the Hydaspes, Alexander 
built a city which he called Bucephalia, in honor of his favorite horse, 
which died there of old age. Here he stationed a part of his army to 
build a fleet, with which to explore the Indus. 

102. The Soldiers refuse to go Farther. — Curiosity and love 
of conquest had now become so settled in the mind of Alexander, that 
he could not be satisfied with the vast extent of country south and 
east of Porus's dominions, which his soldiers subdued with almost 
incredible rapidity. A great sovereign was said to reside far to the 
eastward, governing a populous and wealthy continent, so extensive 
that its utmost limits were entirely unknown. To reach this continent, 
and overthrow this empire, became the object of his solicitude ; and 

Questions.— 101. What misfortune befell Porus himself? What question and reply are 
ooted ? What was the consequence to Porus! What city did Alexander then build ? 



262 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. C. 327. 

orders were accordingly given to prepare for advancing to the Ganges, 
a river which was reported to be thirty-two furlongs wide and one 
hundred fathoms deep. The Macedonians, who had traveled through 
so many lands, and wasted the best part of their lives in fatiguing 
campaigns, were now incessantly turning their eyes to their dear 
native country, and longing to revisit it. For two months they had 
been exposed to violent storms; and now, when new wars and new 
dangers were proposed, neither the severity of military discipline, nor 
their love for their young sovereign, could prevent their feelings from 
breaking forth in loud lamentations. Some bewailed their calamities 
in the most plaintive terms, while others resolutely declared they 
would go no farther. The dissatisfaction spread among all ranks, and 
included even Alexander's most confidential friends. 

103. Still bent upon his expedition, the conqueror assembled his 
army, rehearsed in a moving manner all the victories and spoils they 
had won, and the perils they had encountered together, and set before 
them in glowing colors the new laurels they should gain if they con- 
tinued their route to the ocean. But all in vain. The soldiers, with 
eyes fixed upon the ground, maintained a resolute silence, until a 
venerable man, more bold than the rest, took up the reply. He 
stated in the most respectful tone, that of the Macedonians who left 
Greece with their general, eight years before, some had fallen in battle; 
some, disabled with wounds, had been left in different places, far from 
their families and friends; many had died of sickness, fatigue, and 
forced marches; and of the few that remained, the bodily energies 
were weakened, and the'ininds impaired. He reminded his sovereign 
that his own family had a right to expect him ; that the Grecian repub- 
lics, of which he was the chosen head, had been troubled by divisions 
in consequence of his absence ; and that every principle of honor and 
moderation required his return home. 

104. The soldiers received this statement of their grievances and 
desires with enthusiastic applause, and the king, greatly chagrined, 
dismissed the assembly, and retired silently to his tent. Here he shut 
himself up, and refused for two days to see even his friends; but find- 
ing that his affliction wrought no change in the minds of his soldiers, 
he ordered a sacrifice to be performed, by which the matter was 
referred to the gods. Then, assembling his officers, he told then> that 
as the divine powers were favorable to the desires of the arr^j, he 

Questions. — 102. What orders for advancing were given ? What object did Al»; ander 
then have before him? Why did the soldiers refuse to go farther? 103. State hovr A1«T- 
-!?nder endeavored to change their purpose. Give the points of the speech made i > AW 
order. 104. What course did Alt-xandt-r then take ? 



B. 0.326.1 ALEXANDER'S RETURN. 263 

would cheerfully give up his own wishes, and they might communicate 
his intentions to move homeward. The joy of the heroic Ten Thou- 
sand when "the sea" burst upon their longing gaze, could scarcely 
have equaled the emotions of the sorrowing Grecians when these glad 
tidings were communicated to them. The whole camp echoed with 
praises and blessings of Alexander, and hardy veterans wept tears of 
joy, as imagination presented the distant shores of Greece to their 
delighted view. 

105. The Ocean. — Before he set out on his return, Alexander 
caused twelve altars, seventy-five feet high, to be erected in honor of 
the twelve victories he had achieved in India; and, marking out an 
immense camp, left in it mangers for horses of twice the usual size, 
and every thing else in proportion, to convey the impression that his 
followers were nearer gods than mortals. Having constituted Poms 
viceroy of all the conquered countries, he returned to the Hydaspes, 
where a fleet of 800 galleys, besides vessels of burden and boats, had 
been provided by the party left there for the purpose. In these the 
army took its departure (except a detachment which marched each 
side of the river), about the time of the setting of the Pleiades, that 
was in October. 

106. It took them nine months to move down the river, and conquer 
all the various tribes upon its banks. When they were first greeted 
by the sea-breeze, Alexander leaped with joy, and besought the sol- 
diers to row with all their might, for now they were come to the end 
of their toils, and without fighting any more battles, or spilling any 
more blood, were masters of the universe. With feelings of mingled 
delight and awe, the army gazed upon the heavy swell of the ocean, a 
scene quite new to them ; nor was their astonishment less, when, six 
hours after, the roaring waves retired in a regular ebb, and exposed 
the sandy beach to their curious eyes; but Alexander, thinking that 
the boundaries of the earth had been reached, and a limit set to his 
ambition, " wept because there were no more worlds to conquer." 

107. b. c. 324. Return from India. — After having besought 

Questions. — 104. What caused joy to his troops ? How did they behave ? 105. What was 
done by Alexander in honor of victories? Whom did he leave as viceroy of the con- 
quered countries? What is the modern name of the Hydaspes ? Ans. Behut or Jhylum. 
Of what river is it a tributary ? Ans. The Indus. How large was the fleet prepared for tho 
return of Alexander's army? Ans. 2,000 vessels. What materials must they have had in 
order to build them? What do you infer from this concerning the state of the arts in that 
place? 106. Give an account of the further progress of Alexander's army. Of what took 
place at the sea. What sea? Am. The Erythraean, now called the Arabian. What mis- 
taken idea did Alexander have? Why did he weep ? 107. In what year did Alexander 
return from India ? What petition did he make ? 



204 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 324. 

heaven " That no man might ever reach beyond the bounds of this 
expedition." he prepared to traverse the tract now known as Beloo- 
chistan, on his way to Persia. He sent his fleet out under the admiral 
Nearchus, with orders to coast along the unknown sea, and join the 
land army in the Euphrates. In (50.) The Deseet his troops suffered 
incredibly from want of provisions and wholesome water; and such 
mortality prevailed, that he brought back from India only about one- 
fourth of his army. After they had eaten all the palm-tree roots they 
could find, they fed upon their beasts of burden, and finally upon the 
horses, so that, having no means of transporting those rich spoils 
vrV iich they had gone to the ends of the earth to collect, they were 
obliged to throw them away. At last the miserable remains of that 
gallant army reached (51.) Oaemania, where plenty once more smiled 
upon thera. 

108. The governors of the provinces, hearing of the conqueror's 
approach, sent all kinds of provisions, arms, and presents ; and the 
remainder of his route to (33.) Peesepolis was one triumphal pro- 
cession. His chariot was drawn by eight horses. Upon it was placed 
a lofty platform, where he and his principal friends reveled day and 
night. Other carriages followed, covered with rich tapestry, or paper 
hangings, or shaded with branches of trees, fresh gathered and flou- 
rishing. In these were the rest of the king's generals and friends, 
crowned with flowers and exhilarated with wine. In this whole 
company was not to be seen a buckler, a helmet, or spear; but instead 
of them cups, flagons, and goblets. These the soldiers filled from 
huge vessels of wiue placed by the wayside, and drank till intoxica- 
tion drowned thft remembrance of the friends they had lost in the 
expedition. 

109. jSTearcbus, having made the port with his fleet, left it anchored 
at the isle of Ormus, while he went across the country to report pro- 
gress to his sovereign. His account of the voyage excited in Alexan- 
der a great desire to go upon the ocean. He proposed to sail round 
Africa, as Necho's fleet had done ; to enter the Mediterranean by the 
Pillars of Hercules; to humble the pride of Carthage, which he hated 
for the assistance it had given the Tyrians ; then to cross into Spain, 
and, having subdued every thing there, to coast along Italy to Epirus, 

Questions.— 107. By what route did his fleet proceed? Who commanded the fleet? In 
•what desert did the troops suffer? Ans. Sandy Desert, now Kernian. What is said of the 
sufferings of the troops? At what place did they get relief? 108. Give an account of Alex- 
ander's march from Carmania to Persepolis. 109. W T here did Nearchus anchor his fleet? 
Where is the isle of Ormus? (See map No. 3 again.) Then where did Nearchus go ? How 
did his account of the voyage affect Alexander? What grand scheme did Alexander 
thereupon propose ? 



B.C324.] ALEXANDER'S RETURN. 265 

and thence return over land to Macedonia. For this purpose he sent 
ordeis to the viceroys of Mesopotamia and Syria to build ships upon 
the banks of the Euphrates ; and commissioned Nearchus to bring his 
fleet up the Persian Gulf, to the general rendezvous at Babylou. 

110. The tomb of Cyrus, at Persepolis, had been violated during his 
absence. It was a dome of stone, consisting of one chamber, in which 
stood a bed with golden feet, covered with Babylonian tapestry. On 
the bed was a coffin of gold, containing the embalmed body of Cyrus. 
The inscription on the wall seemed expressly intended for Alexander. 
It reads thus : " O man ! whosoever thou art, and whensoever 

THOU COMEST (FOR COME I KNOW THOU WILT), I AM CYRUS, SON OF 
CaMBTSES, WHO ACQUIRED EMPIRE FOR THE PERSIANS, AND REIGNED 

over Asia ; envy me not this monument." The lid of the coffin 
was gone, and all the furniture of the chamber had been carried away. 
Alexander punished those concerned in the theft with the greatest 
severity. 

111. From Persepolis he proceeded to (32.) Susa, where he set 
himself about the regulation of his vast empire. To cement the union 
of the conquered and the conquerors, he married Statira, daughter of 
Darius, and gave her sister to Hephsestion, his dearest friend. His 
chief officers he also united to distinguished Persian ladies. When 
about 10,000 such matches had been made, the weddings were cele- 
brated in the Persian fashion; but after supper, according to the 
Grecian custom, the ladies were introduced. Each, as she entered, 
was received by her husband, who took her by her right hand, gave 
her a kiss, and seated her by his side. To prevent any ill-humor from 
arising among the lower ranks of the Grecians, these nuptial cere- 
monies were made the occasion of a grand festival. All the debts of 
the soldiers were paid from the royal treasury, and tables loaded with 
every luxury were spread throughout the camp, that none might be 
excluded from partaking of the munificence of their sovereign. To 
those who had distinguished themselves, magnificent presents were 
i^iven ; and the king himself placed a crown upon the head of the 
most eminent. 

112. Here, again, he was joined by Nearchus, and feeling still a 
desire to see the ocean, he went on board the admiral's galley, and 

Questions.— 109. What preliminary orders did he give ? 110. What is said in relation to 
the tomb of Cyrus? What was the inscription ? What action did Alexander take ? 111. 
Where was the city of Susa? By what acts did Alexander undertake to cement the union 
of the conquered and the conquerors? Give an account of the ceremonies that followed. 
112. Where did Nearchus again join Alexander? On what river was Susa? Ans. The Ulai, 
a tributary of the Euphrates. What sail did Alexander take? 
12 



266 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 324. 

sailed down to (52.) The Persian Gulf, and then up to (53.) Thh 
Mouth of the Tigkis, where the main body of his army lay encamped. 
Here he published a declaration that all those Macedonians who by 
reason of age, wounds, or infirmities were unable to endure longer the 
fatigues of service, might return home. The suspicion (which had 
long been lingering in their minds) that their king had transferred his 
affections from them to the Persians was thus changed to certainty. 
Voices were heard through the camp, exclaiming, " He no longer 
cares for the Macedonians ; all his favor is for barbarians ;" and some 
went so far as to vociferate, " Dismiss us all, and for your associate in 
future campaigns take your father Amnion." 

113. Alexander, upon hearing this insolent taunt, leaped from his 
seat, and, pointing out thirteen of the ringleaders, ordered his men to 
take them to immediate execution; then, again ascending the tribunal, 
he addressed the astonished multitude as follows : " I do not address 
you now to divert you from your eagerness to return home ; all are 
welcome to go ; but I desire first to remind you of what you were 
when you left home, and to what circumstances you are now advanced. 
In doing this, I begin with acknowledging that not only my obliga- 
tions, but yours, to my father are incalculably great. The Macedo- 
nians were poor and wandering herdsmen, clothed in skins, and living 
among mountains, when my father began to reign. Philip introduced 
civil and military order. 

114. " Towns then arose, garments of leather were exchanged for 
cloth, and wholesome laws and improved manners made the people 
respectable ; so that the barbarians, whom they had been accustomed 
to fear, were compelled to acknowledge their dominion. Those who 
obtained command in Thessaly had often been their terror; Philip so 
altered things that the Macedonians and Thessalians became nearly 
one people. Communication with southern Greece was commonly 
difficult ; success in the war with Phocis made it sure and easy. The 
Athenians and Thebans had aimed at the conquest of Macedonia. 
Philip humbled both, so that those states owed their safety to Mace- 
donian generosity. Finally, settling the affairs of Peloponnesus, and 
establishing peace throughout Greece, he was elected general of the 
whole nation, for war against Persia — not more to his own honor than 
that of the Macedonian people. 

115. "Succeeding my father, I found in the treasury 60 talents, and 

Questions.— 112. What declaration did he publish ? What effect did the declaration 
have? "What exclamations and vociferations were heard? 113, 114, 115, 116. What liasty 
revenue did Alexander take? What statements did he make in his address? Let the pupi] 
eoinmit the enumeration of Alexander's victories to memory 



b. c. 324.] MUTINY — RECONCILIATION. 267 

borrowed 800 more. Such was the fund with which, together with 
you, I left Macedonia. Soon, through our success in arras, Ionia, 
Eolia, Phrygia, and Lydia became tributary. Syria and Palestine 
soon became yours; and in the same campaign the wealth of Egypt 
and Cyrenaica followed without contest. Mesopotamia, Babylon, 
Susa, Bactria, the Persian treasure, the wealth of India, and the com- 
mand of the ocean beyond, are now yours." He then went on to state 
that he had borne hunger, thirst, and fatigue with the meanest soldier, 
and could show scar for scar with the bravest officer in the ranks ; 
that he had appropriated none of the treasures to himself, and was 
distinguished by nothing but a purple robe and diadem. 

116. " For your glory and your wealth," continued he, "have I led 
you conquerors over plains and mountains, lands and seas. It was my 
intention to have sent home all those less qualified for further service, 
the envy of mankind ; but as it is the desire of all to go, go all, and 
tell those at home that your king, Alexander, who has led you over 
Caucasus, and through the Caspian gates, across the river Oxus, and 
beyond the Indus, who at your head braved the perils of the Gedrosian 
desert, and the unknown dangers of the ocean, so that fleet and army 
have hailed him conqueror at Susa, has been deserted by you, and 
turned over to the care of barbarians, whom with you he had con- 
quered." 

117. Having thus spoken, he descended hastily from the tribunal, 
went to his palace, and did not appear again for three days. Then he 
sent for the various bodies of infantry which he had formed from the 
youth of conquered nations, and, surrounding himself with these, per- 
mitted none to salute him with a kiss but such as were connected with 
him by marriage. The Macedonians, overwhelmed with shame and 
confusion at this severe rebuke, besieged his palace with tears and 
lamentations, till finally, overcome with their sorrow, he ordered the 
gate to be opened, and presented himself to his humbled army. A 
general cry of joy arose ; the king mingled his tears with those of his 
repentant people ; all were permitted to approach him, and none were 
forbidden to take the valued kiss, for he evaded his interdict by calling 
them all his kinsmen. The reconciliation complete, they once more 
put on their armor, and, lifting up the loud prean, returned singing to 
the camp. 

118. From the mouth of the Tigris Alexander proceeded to (34.) 
Ecbatana. Here he celebrated a magnificent thanksgiving for his 

Question*.— 111. Relate what occurred after the speech. IIS. What celebration took 
j lace at Ecbatana ? Where was Ecbatana ? 



268 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 324 

various and extraordinary successes. There had come to him from 
Greece 3,000 persons, skilled in various diversions ; and these were 
employed to fill up the intervals of eating and drinking with dramatic 
entertainments. But in the midst of these festivities Hephsestion fell 
sick of a fever, and as he could not bear to be kept upon a low diet, he 
took the opportunity, while his physician was gone to the theater, to 
eat a roasted fowl and drink a bottle of wine ; in consequence of which 
lie grew worse, and died in a few days. Alexander's grief on the 
death of his friend exceeded all bounds. The sounds of music and 
mirth were instantly hushed, the poor physician was crucified, and 
the horses and mules were shorn, that they might appear to share in 
the general mourning. Sacrifices were offered to Hephsestion as to a 
demi-god, and the first relief which Alexander seemed to feel was in 
conquering a barbarous tribe near Ecbatana, and sacrificing the youths 
to the manes of his departed friend. 

119. After settling affairs in this province, the conqueror directed 
his course to the place which he designed to make the capital of his 
empire. (31.) Babylon. As he was advancing toward this city, 
Nearchus came up the Euphrates, to tell him that the Chaldean priests 
were of the opinion that Alexander should not enter Babylon. But 
he slighted the warning, and went into the city through the very gate 
which they had predicted would be fatal to him. However, the 
unfavorable omens affected his mind considerably, so that he lived 
mostly in his pavilion without the walls, and amused himself by sail- 
ing up and down the Euphrates, and in talking about his grand expe- 
dition. From the miasmatic exhalations of the marshes, or, as some 
say, from excessive drinking, he was seized with a fever, but he made 
an effort to rise everyday, and when not able to do so was carried on 
a couch to the sacrifices, and received his officers in his tent. His 
mind was constantly busied upon his projected enterprise ; he con- 
tinued to give orders concerning it till the eighth day of his malady, 
when he was carried back to his palace. He bestowed his ring upon 
Perdiccas, and when one inquired to whom the kingdom should be 

Questions.— 118. Whom did Alexander regard as his dearest friend? Give an account of 
his sickness and death. Of the consequent acts and ceremonies. 119. What improvements 
did Alexander attempt at Babylon? Ans. He began to repair the dykes broken down by 
Cyrus; forever since that time the water had flooded the country and rendered it unin- 
habitable. He also set himself to rebuild the fane of Belus, which Xerxes destroyed after 
his return from Greece. Some idea of its greatness may be formed from the fact that 10,000 
men labored every day upon it for six months, and still the rubbish was not removed at the 
time of his death. Is there any structure upon the earth now equal in size and height to 
this celebrated tower? What advice and warning did the Chaldean priests give? Give an 
account of the sickness and death of Alexander. 



B. c. 323.J ' DEATH OP ALEXANDER. 209 

given, he answered, "To the most worthy." On the ninth day he 
was speechless, and on the eleventh day he died, b. o. 323. He lived 
almost thirty-three years, twelve of which he had reigned, and nearly 
ten of which he had passed in Asia. 

120. Interment of Alexander. — The moment that Alexander's 
death was known, the whole palace echoed with cries and groans. 
The vanquished Persians and the victorious Greeks bewailed alike the 
man who had established order and peace among the nations, and all 
exclaimed against the gods for having taken him away in the flower 
of his age, and the plenitude of his glory. Nor was this great mourn- 
ing confined to Babylon; it spread over the pr\,*!ices; it affected 
every governor ; it caused the wounds of Sisygambis, mother of 
Darius, to bleed afresh. " She who had survived the massacre of her 
eighty brothers (who had been put to death in one day by Ochus) ; 
the loss of all her children, and the entire downfall of her house, now, 
on the decease of the enemy and conqueror of her line, seated herself 
upon the ground, covered her head with a vail, and, notwithstanding 
the entreaties of Statira and her sister, refused all nourishment, until, 
on the fifth day after, she expired." 

121. When the first impressions of grief had subsided, each one 
began to calculate the consequences of the event to himself. The 
Greeks were far from home, and. without a leader; the empire which 
they had hoped to see established by their valor had lost its head, and, 
uncertain what to do, they waited in painful anxiety for the arrange- 
ments which those in power would make. Those in power were 
equally at a stand. Seven days were spent in confusion and disputes, 
and all that time the body of the mighty conqueror lay unembalmed, 
waiting till some authority should be constituted to give orders con- 
cerning its burial. Finally, all the principal commanders were sum- 
moned to a general assembly. The chair of Alexander was brought 
and placed in the midst ; and Perdiccas laid upon it the insignia of 
royalty, and the ring which Alexander had given him. He then 
declared that it was indispensably requisite for some person to be 
elected head of the government, and that the child of Roxana should 
be acknowledged monarch ofthe Macedonian empire. 

122. To the first proposition all assented ; to the last many objected. 
To commit the scepter of the world to the hands of a guardian in 
trust for an infant yet unborn, alarmed the prudent and awakened the 

Questions.— 119. When did h; Ite? How old waj he nt th<» t'ma of bis death? How 
long had he reigned? 120. Who mourned for Alexander? Why? WLiat is said of the 
mourning and death of Darius's mother" \i. Jo\T were the first seven days After Alex- 
ander's death spent? What wus finally dope ♦ 



970 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [B. c. 323 

jealousy of the ambitious, and a long debate arose as to the propriety 
and consequences of such a step. Aridaeus, the half-brother of Alex- 
ander, a man whose energy of body and mind had been destroyed by 
poisonous draughts, administered by Olympias, was finally chosen 
monarch, to reign conjointly with the child of Roxana, should it prove 
a son. They therefore arrayed Aridseus in the royal robes, buckled 
him with the armor of Alexander, and saluted him by the name of 
Philip, monarch of Macedon, Perdiccas taking care to secure to him- 
self the office of regent of the kingdom and guardian of the future 
prince. After this important affair was settled, the body of Alexander 
was delivered to the Egyptians, who embalmed it after their manner, 
and then a special officer was appointed to convey it to the temple of 
Jupiter Ammon. Two whole years were spent in preparing for this 
magnificent funeral, which made Olympias bewail the fate of her 
son; who, although the son of a god, was compelled to wander so 
long on the gloomy shores of the Styx. 

123. The Lamian War. — While these important affairs were trans- 
acting in Asia, the Greeks at home were not idle. No sooner did the 
news of Alexander's death reach Athens, than the people determined 
to overthrow the hated supremacy of Macedon. Demosthenes, who 
had been banished, was recalled ; and his active spirit soon united all 
the states of Greece against Antipater, who had been left viceroy in 
Alexander's absence. All the citizens capable of bearing arms were 
drawn out for the land array ; and a numerous fleet was speedily 
equipped and put to sea. Antipater was defeated in battle, and shut 
up in Lamia, a city of Thessaly. Being, however, re-enforced by 
troops from Asia Minor, he charged his enemies in turn, and gained a 
great victory. Then, offering to treat with the states separately, he 
roused all their ancient animosities ; and finally poor Athens was left 
to meet his resentment alone. In the treaty formed, Demosthenes 
was to be given up, the democracy abolished, and a Macedonian gar- 
rison to be received into the city. To such humiliating conditions 
was Athens reduced — she who had been the glory of the world ! 

124. The Funeral. — Not long after, the funeral obsequies of Alex- 
ander were celebrated. A particular- description of this august 
pageant may be found in the 15th book of Rollin. It will only be 
necessary to say here, that the body of the deceased monarch was laid 
in a coffin of beaten gold, half filled with spices and perfumes, and 

Questions. — 122. Who was elected monarch in Alexander's place ? What care did Per- 
diccas have? How long were preparations in progress for Alexander's funeral? 123. What 
war next occurred ? How did it occur ? Give an account of it. 124. Give an account of the 
funeral obsequies of Alexander. 



b. c. 323.] DEATH OP PERDICCAS. 071 

covered with a richly embroidered purple pall. A splendid chariot, 
drawn by 64 mules, was the hearse on which it was conveyed to Alex- 
andria, where Ptolemy raised a magnificent temple to his memory, and 
rendered him all the honors usually paid to the demigods of antiquity. 
The mighty fabric of empire which Alexander had reared was dissolved 
by his death. His hopes and purposes died with him. There lived 
no man capable of carrying out the sublime design of uniting the 
nations by one common bond, and extending civilization from one end 
of the earth to the other. His remark, that "his death would be 
followed by strange funeral games," was the language of prophecy. 
Scarcely was he laid in his tomb when all whom he had loved and 
trusted engaged in a bloody struggle to wrest from his heirs the scep- 
ter of universal dominion. 

125. Olympias, the mother of Alexander, was still living in Epirus. 
His sister Cleopatra resided in Sardis ; aud his half-sister Thessa- 
lonica, in Macedon. His half-brother, Philip Aridajus, lately elected 
king, was in Babylon. His widow, Roxana, presented the Mace- 
donians with an heir to the throne three months after her husband's 
death. Statira, daughter of Darius, soon after fell a victim to her 
jealous cruelty. Alexander had also an illegitimate son in Asia 
Minor, who was at this time four years old. These persons consti- 
tuted The Royal Family of Macedon. Situated as they were be- 
tween the pretender? and the crown, they were exposed to attacks 
from every side, and »}\ fell victims to the ambition of those who 
should have been their protectors: so that before the close of half a 
century there Teas left to the founder of a dynasty for the world 
"neither nam^ nor remnant, neither root nor branch.'' 

126. Many hands were stretched forth to grasp the crown : 

(1.) Perdiccas, as commander of the household troops, was in 
reality lord of the empire. He assigned provinces to the government 
•of the other generals, as if by authority of the weak king whom lie 
guarded, or rather governed ; and assisted Roxana to silence forever 
.he claims of Statira. Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Antipater, thinking 
themselves equally entitled to sovereign authority, formed a confede- 
racy against him. Perdiccas declared them rebels; and, taking with 
him the imbecile Philip and the infant Alexander, advanced into 
Egypt to give them battle. He lost a part of his forces in passing tho 
Nile; the rest mutinied, and murdered him in his tent. He survived 
Alexander two vears. 



Question*.— IH. What condition of things existed after Alexander's death ? :'25. What 
norsons were there in the royal family? What account is given of them ? 12C. How loug 
■lid Perdiccas live? Whore did he die? 



272 



1. Perdiccas, 

(2.) 



2. Antipatrr, . 

wjfl. 

Cassander.* \a 

3. Eumenes, \V 

4. Polyspcr- 
chon, (20.) 



GREECE — MACEDONIA. 




[b. c. 321 



8. Seleucus,* 



i 



!•) 



7. Lysima- 
chus,* (42.) 

6. Ptolemy,* 
(40.) 

k Antigonus,f 

(22.) 

Demetrius.t 



Note. — The figures inclosed between parentheses refer to the number of years which 
these individuals survived Alexander. Those names marked thus * were confederates at the 
battle of Ipsus. Those marked thus t were opponents of the confederates in that battle. 

127. (2.) Antipater, regent of Macedon, then took charge of the 
kings, and ruled in their names all the empire lying west of the Hel- 
lespont. His ability and fidelity commanded the respect of his con- 
temporaries, and while he lived Greece was comparatively quiet. He 
however survived his royal master but four years. On his death-bed 
he bequeathed his trust to Polysperchon, the eldest of Alexander's 
generals, to the exclusion of his own son, Cassander, whose ambition 
had already begun to develop dangerous traits in his character. 

128. (3.) Eumenes was appointed by Polysperchon to guard the 
dominions of the crown in Asia Minor against the rapacity of Anti- 
gonus. Of all the self-constituted guardians of the royal family, he 
alone seemed actuated by a sincere desire to serve them. For several 
years he maintained a war in which he displayed great abilities and 
untiring energy, often putting Antigonus to flight, and counteracting 
all his schemes. He was at last betrayed into the hands of an enemy 
with whom he had formerly been upon terms of the most intimate 
friendship. Antigonus dared not trust himself to look his noble 
prisoner in the face, but, giving orders that he should be kept like 
an elephant or a lion, relieved him from the weight of his chains, 
and shut him up in prison: finally, he put him to death. 

Questions.— 127. What became of Demosthenes ? Ans. Having been condemned to death 
by the minions of Antipater, he put an end to his own life. Give an account of Antipater'a 
reign. 12S. Of Eumenes's reign. 



B.C. 318.] CONTESTS FOR EMPIRE. 273 

129. (4.) Poltspekchon. — No sooner had this general assumed the 
charge left him hy Antipater, than Cassander began to form a party 
against liim, in which he engaged Ptolemy and Antigonus. To coun- 
teract the movements of Cassander's confederates in Asia, Polysper- 
chon commissioned Eumenes to carry on war against them m the 
name of the kings. To counteract his movements at home, he recalled 
Olympias from Epirus; and to prevent the Grecian states from favor- 
ing the cause of his antagonist, he published an edict for restoring 
democracy throughout Peloponnesus and Hellas. The disastrous con- 
sequences of these measures were felt throughout the empire. Eu- 
menes, as we have before seen, lost his life in the war with Antigonus- 
Olympias put to death Philip Aridseus and his wife Eurydice ; the 
brother of Cassander and one hundred young noblemen also fell vic- 
tims to her vengeance ; and, to escape the fury which these atrocities 
excited, she herself fled to Pydna, taking with her Thessalonica, 
Roxana, and the young Alexander. 

130. The edict for restoring democracy in the Grecian states pro- 
duced revolution upon revolution. Almost every person of rank or 
merit was stripped of his property or banished. Demetrius Phalereus, 
governor of Athens, was driven into exile, and the venerable Phocion 
was sentenced to death. The last message of this excellent man was 
a command to his son to "forget the injustice of the Athenians." So 
bitter were his enemies against him, that a decree was passed forbid- 
ding his bones to be buried in Attica. The last sad offices were paid 
him in Megara. A lady of that country collected his bones in her 
robe, conveyed them to her house by night, and buried them under 
the hearthstone, praying that they might be faithfully preserved " till 
the Athenians should become wiser." Her prayer was answered. 
Cassander made war upon Polysperchon, and drove him into Etolia. 
Then, marching with an army to Athens, he restored the aristocracy ' 
and recalled Demetrius. The remains of Phocion were brought home, 
and a monument of brass erected to his memory. 

131. Cassander soon after commenced the siege of Pydna. He pre- 
vented the reception of supplies by sea, and cut off all prospect of 
relief by land. The condition of the besieged was deplorable in the 
extreme. The royal family fed on the flesh of horses; the soldiers, 
upon the dead bodies of their companions; and the elephants, upon 
sawdust. Famine finally compelled them to surrender. Olympias 
was immediately put to death, and the widow and son of Alexander 

Questions.— 129. Of Polysperchon's. 130. To what did Polysperchon's edict lead? Give 
the account of Phocion. 131. Where was Pydna? (See map No. 2.) Give an account of the 
eicgo of that city. 
12* 



274 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. a 310. 

kept close prisoners in Amphipolis. Thessalonica was subjected to an 
imprisonment still more irksome by being married to her captor. 
Cassander soon after marched down into Beotia, where he began to 
rebuild the city of Thebes. The place had lain desolate twenty years, 
and the inhabitants had lingered round the spot, finding a miserable 
shelter in the ruins of their former habitations. "With the assistance 
of neighboring towns its walls were again reared up, comfortable 
dwellings erected, and the grateful Thebans owned Cassander their 
second Cadmus. 

132. Cassander, asserting his claim to the throne of Macedon in 
right of his wife, Thessalonica, soon perceived that a rival was grow- 
ing up in the child of Roxana. When the young prince was about 
fourteen, the Macedonians began to exclaim that it was time for him 
to slip his leading-strings and take the head of the government. There 
remained then no alternative for the usurper. He must either give up 
his power or sacrifice Alexander. He chose the latter. Roxana and 
her son were assassinated by order of Cassander. Polysperchon, who 
had been quietly waiting the turn of times, now proclaimed Hercules 
king, and raised an army of 20,000 men to support his right to the 
throne. Cassander had recourse to negotiation. He told Polysper- 
chon that if he would destroy Hercules, and yield him Macedon, an 
army should be ready to establish Polysperchon's supremacy in Pelo- 
ponnesus. The cruel old man listened and consented. Hercules was 
sJain by his pretended friend, and the troops were withdrawn. Cas- 
sander, however, instead of fulfilling his promise, chased Polysperchon 
into Locris, where he lingered out his miserable life, a monument of 
blasted ambition. 

133. (5.) Antigonus, having destroyed the faithful Eumenes, and 
assisted Cassander to usurp the throne of Macedon, assumed the title 
of king, in which he was followed by all the other generals of Alexan- 
der. While he lived, Asia was the scene of constant war. He fought 
against the four confederates in the battle of Ipsus, was defeated, and 
died of his wounds in b. c. 301. (6.) Ptolemy, the founder of the 
Lagidae, supposed to be the son of Philip. He was educated 
in the Macedonian court, and became one of the personal friends of 
Alexander. He led the "winged soldiers" up the Sogdian rock, and 
killed one of the Indian monarchs in single combat. He will appear 

Question*. — 131. What good did Cassander do ? What city did Cassander afterward build ? 
Ans. Thessalonica, in honor of his wife. Where was that city? (See map No. 2.) 13& 
Whom did Cassander sacrifice? Why did he do so? What was the fate of Hercules? What 
was the fate of Polysperchon? In what direction was Locris from Pydna? 183. Cive uu 
account of Antigonus, of Ptolemy 



B. 0. 301.] DIVISION OF THE WORLD. 275 

again as King of Egypt. (7.) Lysimachus received from Penliceas 
the government of Thrace, which he maintained by force of arms till 
the battle of Ipsus, when his title to the sovereign power was con- 
firmed by the confederate princes. (8.) Seleucus, the founder of the 
Seleucidae, outlived all those who began with him the race for the 
crown left by Alexander. He was one Of the conquerors in the battle 
of Ipsus, and his kingdom of Syria was one of the four horns men- 
tioned by Daniel. 

134. We close this chapter by remarking that Antigonus put to 
death Cleopatra, the sister of Alexander ; and that Thessalonica, wife 
of Cassander, was murdered some yenrs after by her own son. Fare- 
well to the royal family of Macedon. How heavily the hand of the 
Almighty fell upon them. A fatal curse seemed to pursue them till 
they were all cut off from the face of the earth. Battle of Ipsus. 
b. c. 301. In the last year of this century, Cassander, Lysimachus, 
Seleucus, and Ptolemy united against Antigonus and his son Deme- 
trius. A great battle was fought upon the plain of Ipsus, in Phrygia. 
The confederates were successful, and immediately proceeded to divide 
the world among themselves. Cassander had Macedon and Greece; 
Lysimachus, Thrace; Seleucus, Syria; and Ptolemy, Egypt. 

135. b. o. 301. Achaean League. — War with Rome. — After 
the battle of Ipsus, Cassander, by consent of his confederates, took his 
seat upon the throne of Macedon, as the supreme head of the Greek 
nation. He died b. c. 294, leaving Thessalonica with three sons, 
Philip, Antipater, and Alexander. Philip died within the same year, 
and the other two fell to quarreling for the vacant throne. Thessa- 
lonica espoused the cause of Alexander, and Antipater murdered her 
with his own hand. Alexander appealed to Demetrius,* who had by 
this time recovered from the defeat of Ipsus. Demetrius gladly under- 

* This singular man, the founder of the last dynasty of Macedon, deserves a more par- 
ticular description. In his youth he possessed such uncommon beauty that no painter 
could do justice to him in a likeness; his address was enchanting, and his energy and cou- 
rage were equaled only by his love of pleasure. He was distinguished for his filial love, in 
an age when parents and children were often rendered bitter enemies by political troubles; 
and he was no less celebrated for the ingenuity and promptness with which he extricated 
himself from difficulty and recovered from misfortune. He was surnamed Poliorcetes, 
'■'besieger of cities" from the number of machines he invented for capturing walled towns. 
In the siege of Rhodes he employed the " Heliopods or Town-taker" which was an im- 
mense tower, supported on eight enormous wheels, and propelled by the labor of 3,400 men. 



Questions.— 133. Of Lysimachus. Of Seleucus. 134. Where was Ipsus? (See map No. 
3.) Give an account of the battle fought there. What division was made of the empire? 
Did this include any part of Europe? Read Dan. viii. 4-9, 20-22. 135. How long did 
Oassander's family possess the throne of Macedon? State how the royal family of MacedoE 
became extinct. Who was the founder of the last dynasty of Macedon ? 



270 GREECE — MACEDONIA, [b. c. 294 

took the affair, but finding that Alexander, having become reconciled 
to his brother, had no further occasion for his services, and was plot- 
ting his destruction, he gained possession of his person and put him 
to death. Antipater fled into Thrace, where he was assassinated by 
his father-in-law, Lysirnachus ; and thus the royal family of Macedon 
became extinct ! 

136. Demetrius then ascended the throne, and reigned unmolested 
seven years. He might have enjoyed the supremacy much longer, 
had he not embarked in an unfortunate attempt to recover the former 
dominions of his father in Asia Minor. Seleucus, who was his son-in- 
law, claimed the territory himself, and steadfastly resisted all the 
efforts of Demetrius. The poor aspirant was finally taken prisoner 
by Seleucus, who held him in honorable captivity many years, per- 
mitting him to indulge in the pleasures of the chase, and depriving 
him of none of his accustomed luxuries. Finally, Demetrius lost his 
relish for active exercises; he became melancholy, grew corpulent, 
stupefied himself with wine, and chased away thought with dice. At 
the end of three years he died of chagrin and intemperance, aged 54. 
At one time he had worn a double diadem and purple robes ; at ano- 
ther, he had escaped from the battle-field in the disguise of a beggar; 
he had been honored, nay, almost worshiped, in Athens and Mace- 
don ; and he died a poor, disappointed, broken-hearted old man, within 
the narrow limits of the Ohersonesus. His ashes were conveyed to 
his son, Antigonus, in a golden urn, who celebrated his funeral with 
great magnificence. This Antigonus became king of Macedon, b. o. 
277. As the most remarkable events of his reign were his wars with 
his uncle, Pyrrhus, for the supremacy of Greece, we will pay a little 
attention to the history of that monarch. 

137. Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. — Epirus began now, for the first 
time, to take the lead in Grecian affairs. The monarch, Pyrrhus, was 
second-cousin to Olympias, and the fifth in the dynasty, of which he 
was the only person of importance. He married the sister of Deme- 
trius while that distinguished individual was looked upon as the heir- 
expectant to a great portion of Alexander's dominions; he fought on 
his brother-in-law's side in the battle of Ipsus, and did not desert him 
in the day of his misfortunes. He even went as a hostage for him to 
the court of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. He gained the favor of that 
monarch, and received a heart-satisfying testimony of it, in being 
allowed to take his best beloved daughter, Antigona, to Epirus as his 

Questions.— 186. What was the end of Demetrius? Give an account of him. What is 
said of Antigonus? 137. Who was Pyrrhus? Give some account of him. 



B. c. 281.] DEATH OF PYRRHUS. 277 

bride. When Demetrius emlarked in his last fatal attempt to regain 
Asia Minor, Pyrrhus, at the request of Ptolemy, invaded Macedonia 
from the west, and was acknowledged king of that country; but the 
anarchy and confusion that ensued soon after compelled him to return 
to Epirus. 

138. Pyrrhus goes to Italy. — A request which flattered his 
vanity and excited his ambition, tempted him again to interfere in 
foreign affairs. The Tarentines, being engaged in an unequal contest 
with the Romans, sent to Pyrrhus for assistance. Pyrrhus was 
delighted with the application ; for all the great conquerors before 
him had neglected to crush the rising power of the west. Having 
prepared a vast number of flat bottomed boats, he set sail from the 
harbors of Epirus, and after a stormy passage arrived at Tarentum. 
He fought two battles with the Romans and was victorious, though 
he suffered a loss almost as discouraging as defeat. Being then 
invited to Sicily, he went thither, and spent two years in a war 
with the Carthaginians; being, however, neither able to overcome 
his enemies nor retain his friends, he returned to Italy. He recom- 
menced hostilities with the Romans, but, having been defeated in 
a great battle, he thought it both safe and wise to sail again for 
Epirus. 

139. To repair his military reputation, he made war upon Antigo- 
nus, drove him from the throne of Macedon, and followed him into 
the Peloponnesus with a large army. He found it impossible to take 
the un walled capital of Laconia, and, after many fruitless efforts to 
retrieve his fortunes, turned aside to drive Antigonus away from 
Argos. The Argives had no desire to be subjected either to Pyrrhus 
or Antigonus, and the latter retired ; but Pyrrhus entered the place in 
the night, and commenced a furious attack upon the inhabitants. The 
combat was obstinate and bloody. Pyrrhus, who possessed a com- 
manding figure and the greatest personal courage, engaged eagerly in 
the fight. An Argive singled out the king as an object of attack, and 
Pyrrhus, crowding his antagonist against the wall, was about to dis- 
patch him, when the mother of the youth threw a tile from the top of 
the house upon the head of the monarch, and broke his skull. A 
more particular account of his six years in Italy will be given in the 
history of Rome. Antigonus Gonatus, having cut off the head of his 
rival, Pyrrhus, and burned his body with funeral honors, returned to 
Macedon. The remainder of his life was passed in tolerable tran- 
sitions. — 138. Of his first expedition to Italy. Of his second expedition to Italy. 139. 

Of his subsequent career. How was he killed ? 



278 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. C. 251. 

quillity; though Peloponnesus and Hellas, which he reckoned among 
his dependencies, were constantly disturbed by wars. 

140. The Ach.ean League. — The republic of Achaia consisted of 
twelve small cities, all the inhabitants of which would scarcely people 
one of our modern towns. The Acbseans had lived independent of 
all other governments, taking very little interest in the affairs of 
Greece till Philip, in preparing to subjugate Asia, compelled them to 
acknowledge his authority, and furnish their quota of soldiers for the 
expedition. In common with their sister states, they took sides in the 
struggles of the great generals for the empire of Alexander, and alter- 
nately enjoyed victory and suffered defeat. When Pyrrhus returned 
from Italy, and overthrew the power of Antigonus, the Achasans 
looked up, and resumed their ancient laws. The chief agent in bring- 
ing about this happy event was Aratus, a native of Sicyon, who, 
having succeeded in expelling the tyrants from his own city, formed a 
design of uniting all the Peloponnesus in a league against Macedon. 
As general of the Achseans, he was able to raise an army and drive 
out the enemies of liberty ; but the Macedonians having established 
themselves in Corinth, he could do nothing further while they retained 
possession of "the fetters of Greece." 

141. Corinth Freed. — Many and various were the schemes he 
devised for regaining this important post ; they all proved abortive 
till accident or Providence sent to him a Corinthian, who, for a certain 
sum, engaged to conduct a band of soldiers to a vulnerable point in 
the wall of the citadel. Aratus pledged his plate and all his wife's 
jewels for the stipulated sum, and about nightfall set off with four 
hundred chosen men on the hazardous enterprise. Their armor glit- 
tered in the moonbeams, and had the Macedonian sentinel been watch- 
ing from the temple of Juno they must inevitably have been discovered. 
Fortunately, a thick fog at length arose, and wrapped a mantle of 
deep gloom over the city. They sat down just without the wall, took 
off their shoes, and silently planted their scaling-ladders. Aratus 
ascended first with one hundred men, commanding the rest to follow 
as soon as possible. Scarcely had the little band descended into the 
city, when they saw a guard of four men approaching with lights. 
They shrunk back into the shade of some ruins, and when the men 
were nearly past, sprang upon them. Three were instantly killed; 



Questions. — 140. How large was Achaia? How had the Achaeans lived? Give a further 
account of them. Who was Aratus? What did he do for Achaia? Where was Sicyon? 
(Map 2.) How was Aratus foiled by the Macedonians? 141. By what act was Aratus 
favored ? How did he gsiin the services of the Corinthian ? 



b. c. 245.] CORINTH FREED. 279 

the fourth escaped with a deep wound in his head, crying out, " The 
enemy! the enemy!" 

142. The trumpets immediately sounded the alarm ; the streets 
were filled with people ; torches were carried to and fro ; the ram- 
parts of the castle were lit up ; and confused cries were heard in every 
quarter. In this tumult Aratus lost his way, and clamhered round 
among the rocks, uncertain what course to take. The moon, so for- 
tunately vailed before, now looked out from beneath a cloud, and 
revealed all the intricacies of the path. Aratus and his men mounted 
the rampart, and were soon engaged in close combat with the guard. 
The three hundred, having cleared the wall, drew up in a close body 
under the shadow of a bending rock, and waited there in the utmost 
anxiety and distress. They could distinctly hear the sound of blows 
and the shouts of combatants ; but these were repeated by so many 
echoes that it was impossible to tell in what part of the city the fight 
was going on, or to what point they should direct their steps. Mean- 
time the Macedonian troops came round to attack Aratus in the rear. 
When they mounted the ascent, the three hundred, guided by their 
voices, followed them, and, as if issuing from an ambuscade, mingled 
in the fight. 

143. The enemy fled in dismay. The three hundred shouted vic- 
tory to Aratus, and Aratus shouted liberty in return. The Corin- 
thians, roused by a sound so delightful to every Grecian ear, joined 
the Achaaans; and by break of day the Macedonians were all either 
taken prisoners or expelled from the city. As soon as practicable 
Aratus entered the theater, and the Corinthians crowded in to hear 
him speak. He stood leaning on his lance, with an air of solemn joy, 
till a profound silence reigned through the vast concourse — then, hav- 
ing recounted to them the history and principles of the Achaean league, 
and having exhorted them' to join it, and assist in overthrowing the 
supremacy of Macedon, he delivered the keys of the city to the magis- 
trates, and pronounced Corinth once more free! This bold and suc- 
cessful action gained many friends for the League. Several important 
cities joined the Achseans, and Aratus would doubtless have been 
successful in giving liberty to the Peloponnesus had not the Spartans 
become jealous for their own rights and turned against him. 

144. The following is the line of Spartan succession, continued 
from page 126. 

Questions. — 142, 143. Give an account of his success at Corinth. What course did h« 
afterward pursue? What was the effect? Where was Corinth? (See map No. 2.) 144 
Givi the line of Spartan succession. 



280 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 244 

[22] Cleornbrotus, killed at Leuctra. I20I Agesilaus. 



(Omitted, as unimportant.) 



(Omitted.) 



_L |26] Agis, killed b} 

|29| Leonidas. the Ephori. 

1^21 Cleomenes marries the widow of Agis, is driven from his 
throne by Antigonus, king of Macedon, and dies in Egypt, b. c. 214. 
With him ended the race of Heraclidse, which had so long occupied 
the throne of Laconia. Sparta was afterward governed by tyrants. 

145. Spakta. — During all the revolutions which had taken place 
since the day of Epaminondas, Sparta had been gradually declining in 
virtue and military renown. Agis ascended the throne of Sparta b. 0. 
244. While Aratus was using every effort to overthrow the power of 
Macedon, Agis was planning the destruction of two more dreadful 
tyrants — Vice and Luxury ; but, living as they did in a servile and 
degenerate age, both these distinguished men fell victims to the hatred 
which their 2eal in the cause of reform inspired. Agis attempted to 
revive the laws of Lycurgus, which had fallen into disuse, to redivide 
the lands, which had by degrees passed into the hands of a few indi- 
viduals, and to cancel those obligations which made the poor slaves to 
the rich. His brother sovereign, Leonidas, opposed all his measures, 
and gained the Ephori to his side. Agis was thrown into prison as 
the instigator of a revolution, and strangled. Leonidas then com- 
pelled the widowed queen to marry his own son, Cleomenes, because 
she was the richest and most beautiful woman in Sparta. 

146. Cleomenes, however, was very unlike his father. He respected 
the feelings of the woman who had so reluctantly become his bride, 
and listened with the greatest attention while she recounted the vir- 
tues and misfortunes of her former husband. He began to admire the 
character so constantly presented before him, and insensibly formed 
his own upon the same model. As soon as he was freed from restraint 
by the death of his father, he made arrangements for carrying out the 
design which had cost Agis his life. The Ephori being in reality " the 
power behind the throne, greater than the throne," he determined 
first to destroy them. One evening while the Ephori were at supper, 

Questions, — 144. By whom, after Cleomenes, was Sparta governed? 145. When did Agis 
become king of Sparta? What was the character of Agis ? Give an account of him. Who 
was Leonidas? Who Cleomenes? Whom did Cleomenes marry ? Why? 146. What was 
the character of Cleomenes? How did he come to admire the character of Agis? What 
determination did he form ? How was it carried out ? 



b. c. 222.] WAR WITH ROME. 281 

a small party, headed by the brother of Cleomenes, rushed into the 
hall with drawn swords, and fell upon them. Four were slain, and 
one escaped. Cleomenes, now indeed a king, called the people toge- 
ther, and after justifying what had been done, proposed the re-estab- 
lishment of the government upon its ancient basis, giving up his own 
estate first for distribution. The people acquiesced in the measure, 
and the laws of Lycurgus were formally restored. 

147. The spirits of Cleomenes rose with success. He began to 
indulge the hope of making Sparta again the head of the Greek nation. 
Having gained several victories over the forces of the League, he pro- 
posed that the Achseans and Spartans should unite, and make him 
captain-general of the allied forces. Aratus, who had been thirty- 
three years possessed of chief authorit} r , could not bear the thought of 
being supplanted by a youth, and that youth a Spartan. Finding, 
however, that his friends were inclined to accept Cleomenes' offer, he 
sent to the hing of Macedon for assistance ; thus voluntarily submit- 
ting to a power which he had spent all his life in striving to over- 
throw. Antigonus Doson, guardian of the young Philip, immediately 
marched into the Peloponnesus with an army ; totally defeated Cleo- 
menes, and made himself master of that renowned Sparta, which had 
never before surrendered to its enemies. Cleomenes fled to Egypt, 
where he died by his own hand. Antigonus, having abolished all that 
Cleomenes had done to re-establish the supremacy of Sparta, com- 
mitted the unfinished work of destruction to the factions and corrup- 
tions with which the city was filled, and returned to Macedon, where 
he died, b. o. 222, leaving the crown to its lawful possessor, Philip. 

148. War with Rome. — The Etolians, who had been gradually 
gaining a name among the Greeks, now entered the lists as competi- 
tors with the Achaeans for supremacy. The Achseans, unable to carry 
on a war with the Etolians, sent for help to Philip ; and the Etolians, 
unable to carry on a war with the combined forces of Macedon and 
Achaia, sent to the Romans! Though the Romans were at this time 
sore pressed by the Second Punic War, yet they sent a consul and a 
body of troops against Philip. The war between Philip and the 
Romans went on for several years, Philip changing gradually for the 
worse, as victory or defeat excited his passions. Aratus, by whose 
counsels Antigonus had been guided, was at first the friend of the 
Macedonian king ; but, finding that every new situation seemed to 

Question*.— 146. What change did he then carry out? 147. What hope did he begin to 
have ? What proposition did he make with that view ? How was he baffled in his designs ? 
Give an account of Antigonus Doson. 148. What is said of the Etolians? What combina- 
tions were formed ? Give the account of Aratus. 



282 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 183. 

develop some new trait of tyranny in his character, he withdrew 
entirely from his retinue. Philip felt the implied reproach ; and, 
resolving to be rid of his silent censor, employed one of his creatures 
to administer slow poison to the venerable general. Aratus saw his 
body wasting away by degrees, and understood the cause ; but it was 
useless to complain ; once he said, when a friend had observed him 
, spitting blood, "Such, Cephalon, are the fruits of royal friendship." 

149. The head of the Achaean league, after the death of Aratus, 
was Philopcemen, called by historians, "The last of the Greeks." He 
fought with Antigonus against Cleomenes, and ever afterward watched 
the Spartans with jealous eye. When Machanidas the tyrant attempted 
to subject the Peloponnesus Philopcemen, resisted him, and slew him 
with his own hand. As master of the Achasan horse, he distinguished 
himself above all his predecessors, and commanded the respect equally 
of enemies and friends. The restless spirit of Philip about this time 
embroiled him in a war with the Rhodians and Athenians, who also 
had recourse to Rome. 

150. b. o. 146. Geeece becomes a Roman Peovince. — The 
senate and people of Rome were deliberating upon the propriety of 
sending succors to the Rhodians and Athenians, when embassadors 
came from Athens to implore immediate help, because Philip wa3 
preparing to besiege the city. The Romans, upon the receipt of this 
information, declared war against Philip. The contest lasted four 
years, and Philip found that, like the dog in the fable, he had lost his 
own possessions by attempting to grasp another's. He was defeated 
in the battle of Cynocephale, and compelled to sue for peace. The 
consul obliged him to pay an enormous tribute, and to give up his son 
Demetrius as a hostage. The determination of the Romans with 
regard to the fate of Greece was to be made known at the solemniza- 
tion of the Isthmian games. Crowds came from the farthest limits of 
the country to hear what the sovereign arbiters would decree con- 
cerning the government of the states. When the vast multitude were l 
assembled, a herald came forward, and proclaimed with a loud voice: ■ 
" The senate and people of Rome, and Titus Quintius, their general, 
having overcome Philip and the Macedonians, ease and deliver from 
all garrisons, taxes, and imposts, the Corinthians, Athenians, Achseans, 
&c. &c, declare them free, and ordain that they shall be governed by 
their respective laws and usages." 

Questions. — 149. Who was Philopcemen? Give an account of him. What new war ia 
spoken off 150. Why did Athens appeal to Rome? What was the immediate conse- 
quence? What were the further consequences? Where was Cynocephale? (See rnap 
N o. 2.~) What did the herald proclaim t 



b. c. 196.] GREECE A ROMAN PROVINCE. 283 

151. At first, a low murmur prevented the people from hearing the 
glad tidings distinctly, but when the herald repeated the proclamation, 
their joj broke forth in such loud and repeated acclamations* that tha 
sea resounded on either side, and the hills and valleys of Corinth rang 
with the echoes again and again. The games could not call off their 
attention ; they ran in crowds to the Roman general to kiss his hand, 
to throw crowns of flowers upon him, and to salute him as their 
deliverer. It was a proud day for Titus Quintius Flaminius, when to 
the trophies of the bodies and lands of the Grecians, won by force of 
arms, he added their hearts also, won by clemency and virtue. In the 
following year, b. o. 197, Flaminius was intrusted with a war against 
Nabis, tyrant of Lacedemon, who had seized upon Argos. This Nabis 
was a monster of wickedness. From the very first, he established his 
power by rapine and bloodshed ; those who possessed either rank or 
fortune were marked as victims to his envy or avarice.t 

152. Philip assisted Nabis in his attempt upon Argos ; and Philo- 
poemeu, with the Achaean forces, assisted the Romans. Flaminius, 
with his allies, marched into Laconia, and laid siege to Sparta. This 
city, since the rule of the tyrants, had been surrounded with walls, 
and was now prepared to stand a desperate attack. Flaminius finally 
made peace with Nabis, because his term of office had nearly expired, 
and he wished to leave the country ungarrisoned and free. "When 
Flaminius was about to depart, he assembled deputies from the differ- 
ent states at Corinth, and made his farewell address. After rehears- 
ing the particulars of his administration, and urging them to preserve 
inviolate the alliance with the Romans, he told them that he was pre- 
paring to withdraw his army from Greece, and that within ten days 
from the time he set sail, every garrison would be disbanded, the cita- 
del of Corinth given up to the Achaaans, and every city left to enjoy 
its own laws and liberties. The whole assembly wept for joy; each 
one exhorted his neighbor to receive the words of the Roman general 

* Plutarch says, the shouts had such an effect upon the air, that several crows, which 
wore flying over the place, fell dead; and so great was the crowd around Flaminius, that he 
was obliged to retreat for fear of being suffocated. 

t To carry out his schemes of extortion, he constructed an automaton resembling his 
wife, and when any opulent citizen refused to furnish him with money, "perhaps," Nabis 
would say, "the persuasions of my wife will prove more successful." The individual was 
then introduced into a private apartment, where the horrid machine was made to clasp him 
in its arms, and pierce him with sharp iron points, till the torture compelled him to grant 
the tyrant's demands. 

Questions. — 151. How did the people receive the tidings? What is said of Flaminius? 
Who was Nabis? What was his character? 152. What war combinations were made! 
Relate the doings of Klaminius. What " assembly wept for joy V What was the cause of 
the weeping? 



284 GREECE— MACEDONIA. [b. c. 191 

as oracles, and lay them up as decrees of fate. As a testimony of 
their gratitude, the Achaeans purchased all the Roman slaves in Greece, 
and sent them home with Flaminius. 

153. But Greece could not be quiet. It was her fortune to come 
within the limits of that vast whirlpool, which all nations were invol- 
untarily forming around the empire of Rome. The Etolians had been 
allies of the Romans in the late contest. In the unbounded applause 
bestowed upon Flaminius, they felt themselves overlooked. Their 
general projected a mighty league, the head of which was to be a per- 
son of no less consequence than Antiochus, king of Syria. Nabis, 
tyrant of Lacedemon, was to manage the south ; Philip of Macedon, 
the north ; Antiochus was to come with a great army from the east ; 
the Etolians were to march from the west ; Greece was to be subjected 
not only, but war was to be declared against Rome, and the spoils 
were to be divided when the conquest was won. 

154. b. o. 191. How the League prospered. — The Romans, 
hearing the mighty preparations making against them, immediately 
took measures to meet the shock. Philopoamen, general of the 
Achaeans, was appointed to settle the account with Nabis, who, by the 
aid of his wife, was raising funds with great rapidity. Philopcemen 
ravaged Laconia, fought a battle with Nabis, and destroyed three- 
fourths of his army. Antiochus, in pursuance of the part assigned to 
him, made a descent upon Euboea, summoned the town of Ohalcis to 
open its gates, and, with a great flourish of trumpets, promised to 
deliver all Greece. To this the Chalcidians replied, that they could 
not guess what people it was that Antiochus came to deliver; that 
they knew of no city garrisoned by foreign soldiers, or tributary to 
the Romans; that they had no occasion for a deliverer, being already 
free; nor for a defender, as they enjoyed the blessings of peace in 
amity with the Romans; and therefore they should not permit him to 
enter their city. Antiochus was thus compelled to pass on without 
effecting any thing. 

155. The course of Philip was not exactly such as had been hoped. 
Instead of assisting the League, he sent to the Romans, offering to 
stand on their behalf, and furnish money and men according to his 
ability. Antiochus, in conjunction with the Etolians, fortified the 
pass of Thermopylae, and there waited the approach of the consul. 
When the Romans reached the place they were stopped, of course ; 

Quextions.—loS. What had made the Etolians dissatisfied ? What did their general do ? 
How many persons were engaged in the league ? What was the object of the league ? 
154. What did Philopcemen accomplish? How was Antiochus foiled? Where was Chalcis ? 
(Map No. 2.) 155. What course did Philip pursue ? 






b. c. 188.J DEATH OF PHILOPCEMEN. 285 

but Cato, who was a lieutenant in the array, having read of the man- 
ner by which the band of Leonidas was surrounded, proposed to lead 
a select party over the mountain path. He set out with a proper 
detachment, but, having lost his way, the soldiers passed the greater 
part of the night in scrambling over rocks, and wandering round in 
the woods. 

156. About daylight they heard the sound of human voices, and 
perceived at a little distance a body of Etolians. Immediately draw- 
?ng their swords, they rushed upon the enemy, and put them to flight. 
The terror of the Etolians created a universal panic. At the same 
moment the Roman consul, hearing the shouts, commenced an attack 
upon the main body. A stone struck Antiochus in the face, and shat- 
tered his teeth. Excessive pain forced him to quit the field — exces- 
sive fright forced most of his men to follow his example. Many lost 
their lives in the sea; some were trodden to death in the rout; some 
perished in dreadful morasses ; some fell down craggy precipices ; and 
Antiochus had only about 500 men left of the army with which he 
meant to subjugate all Greece. Etolia surrendered not long after, 
and Philip sent embassadors to Rome to congratulate the senate upon 
their glorious victory. His messengers were kindly received, and his 
son Demetrius returned home with the highest marks of distinction. 

157. Philopoemen had humbled Sparta, demolished its walls, abol- 
ished the laws of Lycurgus, and subjected the city to the customs and 
usages of the Achaeans. Messenia now drew off from the League. 
Philopoemen, though sick, set out with his chosen cavalry to bring it 
back to its allegiance. He was surrounded in a narrow defile by his 
enemies, and thrown from his horse. The Messenians took him cap- 
tive while he lay insensible, and cast him into a dungeon. At night 
the executioner was sent to him with a cup of poison. He was 70 
years of age. Polybius, the historian, who carried his ashes in a 
silver urn to Megalopolis, his native city, sums up his eulogy by say- 
ing, " that in forty years, during which he played a distinguished part 
in a democracy, he never incurred the enmity of the people, though 
he acted with the greatest freedom and independence." 

158. End of the Macedonian Dynasty. — When Demetrius, son 
of Philip, returned from Rome, the marks of distinction with whici 
the senate had honored him created for him both enemies and friends. 
Fully persuaded of the invincible power of the Romans, he opposed a 

Questions. — 155, 15G. Give an account of the defeat of Antiochus. What then did Philip 
do ? With what result ? 157. What had Philopoemen done ? Give the further and closing 
account of him. 15S. Who was Demetrius? What caused him to have enemies as well 
n? friends? 



285 GREECE — MACEDONIA. [b. c. 146. 

war which his father was projecting. Perseus, his brother, by con- 
stantly representing that all those who attached themselves to Deme- 
trius were enemies of Macedon, succeeded in turning away his father's 
heart from his virtuous and upright son. The friends of peace rallied 
round the youth who had been so much complimented by the Romans, 
and this made his position still more trying. The infirmities of 
Philip's disposition daily increased, and the artful Perseus having 
persuaded him that Demetrius entertained treasonable designs, ordei-3 
were given for his assassination. Two years after, Philip discovered 
his mistake, and remorse soon hurried him to his grave. He expired 
in the most horrid agony, bewailing the fate of his dutiful and loving 
Demetrius, and calling down curses upon the head of the infamous 
Perseus. He had reigned forty years. 

159. Perseus ascended the throne b. o. 179. His hatred of the 
Romans had been cultivated from early youth, but from motives of 
policy he vailed his feelings, while he used every method to strengthen 
his kingdom, and retrieve the losses sustained in the previous reign. 
The Romans, however, were not inactive. They crowded him from 
one humiliating concession to another, till there remained no alterna- 
tive but war or slavery. We pass over all treaties, negotiations, and 
embassies, with which such affairs are generally politely prefaced, to 
come at once to the decisive battle, which was fought near Pydna, b. o. 
168. This conflict was very brief and very bloody. The parties were 
engaged in close fight but an hour, yet when the Romans passed the 
river the next day, the waters were still stained with blood. Perseus 
was taken prisoner and carried to Rome, to adorn the triumph of 
Paulus Emilius, his conqueror. 

160. Achaia at length became involved in a war with the Romans. 
Diseus, the last captain-general of the League, took up his station in 
Corinth. The consul Mummius led a Roman army to the isthmus, 
and encamped before the city. The besieged made a sortie, and were 
driven back with great loss. Diaeus, abandoning himself to despair, 
killed his wife with his own hands; set fire to his own house; drank 
poison, and ended an inglorious life by a shameful death. The follow- 
ing night, every one that could possibly escape left Corinth. The 
consul abandoned the city to the fury of the soldiers. All the men 
were put to the sword, the women and children were enslaved ; and 

Questions. — 158. Who was Perseus? How did the two brothers get in opposition? What 
was the result to Demetrius? Also to Philip? 159. How long had Philip reigned? When 
did Perseus succeed him? How did Perseus regard the Romans? What decisive battle is 
mentioned? Give an account of it. Where was Pydna? 160. What is said of Achaia? 
Who was Diaeus? Give an account of him. Of the destruction of Corinth. 



B. c. 146.] GREECE GOVERNED BY PRAETORS. 2S7 

after the statues and paintings had been removed, the houses and tem- 
ples were set on fire. The whole city continued in flames several days. 
The walls were then razed to their foundations, and a blackened mass 
of ruins alone remained to tell where once proud Corinth stood, b. o. 
147. 

161. Greece was divided by the Romans into two provinces, Mace- 
donia and Achaia, and governed by annual praetors, sent over from 
Italy. The rival states, whose contentions for supremacy had so long 
made an " Aceldama" of the "land of song," sank at once into poli- 
tical insignificance. Athens, however, still retained the supremacy 
of mind. The sciences and arts proved less perishable than civil and 
military institutions. In her classic groves the youth of Rome were 
educated ; and that empire which Themistocles had failed to gain from 
the favor of Neptune, was laid as a tribute at her feet by those distin- 
guished individuals who had learned wisdom in the city of Minerva.* 

• In the mythic legends of Athens, Neptune and Minerva were represented as contend- 
ing for the guardianship of the city. 

Questions. — 161. What supremacy did Athens maintain in spite of political insignificance ? 
"What makes a nation great? 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

1. Give the early account of Philip the Great 223, 224 

2. Name the important events in his life 224-237 

3. Give an account of his contest with the Athenians 225-236 

4. Of Demosthenes, and the part he took 225-270 

5. What events brought Philomelus into notice ? 227, 228 

6. Give the full account of him 227-229 

7. How did Thessaly come under Philip's dominion? 226-229 

8. State what you can of Phayllus 229, 230 

9. What account is given of the " Double Vote " ? 230 

10. How was the " Macedonian War " brought about ? 230, 231 

11. What part did Demosthenes take in the matter? 231, 232 

12. What part did Chares take ? 232 

13. What was Philip's success against the Olynthians? 232 

14. What was his success in the region toward the Danube? 233 

15. How was Philip's absence taken advantage of ? 233 

16. Give an account of Philip's failure at Byzantium 233, 234 

17. How was Philip brought into the midst of Grecian affairs ? 234 

18. State the events preliminary to the battle of Cheroneia 234, 235 

19. Describe the battle and state its consequences 235, 236 

20. What can you state of Olympias? 227, 236, 271-273 

21. Give the particulars of the death of Philip 236, 237 



288 GREECE — MACEDONIA. 

PAGB 

22. When and where was Alexander the Great born? 237 

23. Give an account of Aristotle 231, 237, ,238, 258 

24 "What is said of Bucephalus? 238, 252, 261 

25. How did Alexander establish his authority in Greece? 239 

26. Give an account of his success against the Goths 239, 240 

27. Of Demosthenes's success against him 240, 241 

28. "What course did Demosthenes then take? 241 

29. Give an account of the destruction of Thebes 241, 242 

30. How was Athens saved from destruction ? 242 

31. What was Alexander's ruling object ? 242 

32. Name the events of his first campaign 243-246 

33. Name the events of his second campaign 246-251 

34. What is said in connection with the taking of Tyre ? 248, 249 

35. Name the events in Alexander's third campaign 251-254 

36. Name the events in his fourth campaign 254-256 

37. Name the events in his fifth campaign 256-258 

38. What occurred in the next campaign ? 258 

39. Give the events connected with the death of Clitus 258, 259 

40. What did Alexander accomplish in his eighth campaign ? 260 

41. What was his success against Porus ? 260, 261 

42. Relate the events preceding Alexander's homeward move 261-263 

43. Give an account of the homeward move 263-268 

44. Of Alexander's death and burial 268, 269, 270 

45. What events followed ? 269, 270 

46. What hands stretched forth to grasp the crown ? 271, 272 

47. What is said of Perdiccas ? 271 

48. Antipater ? 272 

49. Eumenes? 272 

50. Polysperchon ? 273 

51. Antigonus ? 274 

52. Ptolemy ? 274 

53. Lysimachus ? 275 

54. Seleucus ? 275 

55. Give an account of Cassander 272-275 

56. Of Pyrrhus and his doings 276, 277 

57. Of the Achaean League 278-285 

58. Of Cleomenes and his doings i 280, 281 

69. Give an account of the war with Rome 281-287 

60. State the particulars of Flaminius's success 283 

61. What is said of Demetrius, son of Philip ? 282-286 

62. Of Antiochus and his career? 284, 285 

63. OfPerseus? 286 

64. How was Greece divided ? 287 



THRACE. 

SECTION V. 

1. Lysimachus. — b. o. 300. — In the general division of the empire 
of Alexander, after the battle of Ipsus, Thrace fell to Lysimachus, a 
Macedonian noble. He married Arsinoe, sister of Ptolemy, king of 
Egypt, though his son, Agathocles, had already united himself to 
Lysandra, half sister of Arsinoe. Nothing of particular importance 
occurred in the domestic history of Thrace, until the children of the 
two Egyptian sisters were grown to manhood. Arsinoe, fearing that 
the death of Lysimachus would leave her sons in the power of Agatho- 
cles, began to poison the mind of the old king against his first-born. 
Fully persuaded that Agathocles was engaged in a conspiracy, Lysi- 
machus ordered him to be put to death. Lysandra, with her children, 
fled to the court of Seleucus. This prince, though 77 years of age, 
was not deaf to the voice of ambition, nor insensible to the claims of 
the unfortunate. He declared war against Lysimachus, and with a 
large army marched into Asia Minor. 

2. Lysimachus immediately crossed the Hellespont, and advanced to 
meet his rival in Phrygia, upon a plain called the Field of Cyrus. It 
was a spectacle over which humanity might weep, to see these two 
gray-haired old men, the last survivors of those distinguished generals 
who won such glory in the campaigns of Alexander, now meeting to 
engage in deadly strife for a dominion which must necessarily be so 
very brief. Lysimachus was defeated and slain. Seleucus passed 
over to take possession of Macedonia and Thrace, but was murdered 
by Ptolemy Ceraunus, brother of Arsinoe, b. o. 281. 

3. The friends and followers of Lysimachus at first regarded Cerau- 
nus as the avenger of his blood ; but when the cruel Egyptian married 
his own sister, Arsinoe, and assassinated the two young princes in her 
arms, they looked upon him with horror and detestation. His career 
was short. Providence commissioned a distant and barbarous people 
to do the work of vengeance. The Gauls, finding their own country 
too populous, sent out a numerous army in quest of more fertile 

Thkace.— Section V —Questions.—!. In the division of Alexander's empire, to whose 
share did Thrace fall? What led to a battle between him and Seleucus? 2. Give an ao 
count of the battle. The closing account of Seleucus. Where was Phrygia ? (See- map 
No. 2.) 3. How then was Ceraunus at first regarded ? What change took place ? 
13 



290 



SYRIA. 



[b. o. 312. 



regions. Following the valley of the Danube, they arrived in Thrace. 
"While all other princes through whose territory they passed were 
purchasing safety with money and jewels, Ceraunus prepared for 
war. A battle was fought, in which he was defeated and taken pris- 
oner, covered with wounds. The Gauls cut off his head, fixed it on a 
lance, and held it up for derision. Thrace, being thus left without a 
king, fell under the power of Macedonia, and continued subject to the 
descendants of Demetrius till Greece was conquered by the Romans 

SYRIA. 
4. The Dynasty of the Seleucidje, b. o. 312. 

I * 1 Seleucus I., ISTieator 312. 



2 




Antiochus I., Soter 280. 
Antiochus II., Theos 261. 
Seleucus II., Oallinicus 246. 



5 Seleucus III., Oeraunus 226. 



6 I Antiochus III., the Great 223. 
7| Seleucus IV., Philopater 187. 

Antiochus IV., Epiphanes 176. 
Antiochus V., Eupator 164. 
] 0| Demetrius 162-151. 

(11— Usurper.) 

12\ Demetrius II., Nicator 146-140. 

(13— Usurper.) 

1 14|-/-|"" Antiochus VII., Sidetes 137-129. 
(15— Usurper.) 



16 Seleucus V. 



Antiochus VIII., Grypus 122-114. 
18] Seleucus VI. 
19 1 Antiochus IX 69-65. 



Quest ioii8: — 3. Give an account of Ceraunus's career. 



B. c. 312.] SYRIAN KINGS. 201 

The era of the Seleucidfe is dated from b. o. 312, when Seleucus 
alone gained a victory over Antigonus, and entered Babyion in 
triumph, though some chronologers date the commencement of the 
Syrian kingdom at the victory of Ipsus, 301. 

5. Seleucus I., surnamed Nicator, or the "Conqueror," received in 
the general division Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and a part of Asia 
Minor. He was the greatest and most powerful monarch of the four 
who divided the empire of Alexander. He built the city of Seleucia, 
about 45 miles north of Babylon, and gave it the privilege of being a 
free Grecian city. He built also Antioch, the third city in the world 
for beauty, greatness, and population. About a year after the death 
of his friend Ptolemy, king of Egypt, he engaged in a war with Lysi- 
machus, in which that monarch was slain. He was assassinated the 
following year, b. o. 280. Antiochus I., Soter, "Saviour," succeeded 
to his father's throne. He was distinguished for his victories over the 
Macedonians and Galatians. 

6. Antiochus II., Theos, "God," was so called by the Milesians, 
because he delivered them from a tyrant. He engaged in a war with 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, but, being defeated, was compelled to sue 
for peace ; a boon which he obtained on condition of divorcing his 
wife, Laodice, and marrying Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy. The 
happiness of this match was of short duration. As soon as the king 
of Egypt died, Berenice was repudiated, and Laodice recalled. This 
wicked queen, fearing another reverse of fortune, poisoned Antiochus, 
and, pretending that he was sick, sent for the principal noblemen to 
hear the last commands of their sovereign. Meantime she put a per- 
son who much resembled him into his bed, and instructed him what 
to say. When the nobles arrived, the pretended Antiochus, in a faint 
voice, recommended his dear Laodice to their care, and appointed her 
oldest son, Seleucus, his successor. The death of Antiochus was soon 
after made public, and Laodice, having placed her son upon the throne, 
dispatched Berenice and her son, b. o. 246. 

7. Seleucus II., Callinicus, had scarcely assumed the purple, when 
Ptolemy Euergetes invaded Syria to avenge the death of his sister, 
Berenice. The Syrians revolted in great numbers to the Egyptians, 
and Seleucus was compelled to see his dominions ravaged, without 

Questions. — 4. After the death of Cerautius, what became of Thrace ? 5. At what period 
commenced the era of the Seleucidae ? Who was Seleucus I. ? Give his history. Where ia 
Antioch? Ans. Just half way between Constantinople and Alexandria, being 700 miles 
from each. Here the disciples were first called Christians. For what was Antiochus Soter 
distinguished? 6. Why was Antiochus II. called Antiochus Theos? Give his history 
Relate the crimes of Laodice. 7. Give the history of Seleucus Callinicus. 



292 STRIA. [b. c. 226 

power to protect them. During these commotions, Arsaces, the gover- 
nor of Parthia, revolted; and, being victorious in a battle, took Seleu- 
cus prisoner. This Arsaces was the founder of the Parthian dynasty, 
Arsacidfe, a race of tyrants as impious as the world ever saw. Seleu- 
cws died after a ten years' captivity, by a fall from his horse. 

8. Seleuous III., Ceraunus, "the Thunderer,'' reigned ingloriously 
three years. He was succeeded by his brother, Antiochus III., the 
Great. This prince engaged in a long and distressing war with Pto- 
lemy Philopater, and was at last compelled to give up a great part of 
Syria to purchase peace. He then commenced hostilities with the 
Parthians to recover Media. This province was very valuable from 
its producing the finest horses then known. Antiochns took the city 
of Ecbatana. The royal palace, though built of cedar and cypress, 
had not the least particle of wood visible. The joists, beams, ceilings, 
columns, and piazzas, were all covered with gold and silver plates. 
Alexander, Antigonus, and Seleucus had successively plundered the 
place, yet Antiochus collected enough of the precious metals to amount 
to $3,000,000. After a war of seven years, Antiochus made a treaty 
with Arsaces, and returned to Antioch, 

9. Antiochus III. (the Great). — b. c. 22&-187.— This was that 
Antiochus who entered into the famous league with the Etolians to 
overthrow the Romans, and suffered so much from the extraction of 
his teeth at Thermopylae. From Greece he removed back to Ephesus, 
where, in the company of a young woman whom he had found in his 
travels and married, he passed his time as merrily as possible. He 
did not awake to a full sense of his danger till his troops had suffered 
defeat after defeat, and the Romans had actually brought the war into 
Asia. Then he gave battle, was vanquished, and fled with all speed 
to Antioch. Thence he sent his nephew to desire peace. It was 
granted on condition that he should surrender all Asia Minor, pay an 
immense sum of money, give twenty hostages, and deliver up Hannibal, 
who had taken refuge at his court. Antiochus agreed to comply with 
these terms. To obtain the money, he took a plundering tour through 
his dominions. The inhabitants of Susiana slew him because he 
robbed their temple. Seleuous IV., Philopater. To raise the tribute 
imposed on his kingdom by the Romans employed all the time and 

Questions. — 7. What do you know of the Parthians? Ans. They were a tribe of Scythians 
who lived in the northeast part of Persia. Arsaces drove out the Syrians, founded a new 
empire, conquered Persia and several neighboring states. The Romans had frequent con- 
tests with the Parthians, but never subdued them. 8. What is said of Seleucus Ceraunus? 
Give the account of Antiochus the Great. What is said of the royal palace at Ecbatana? 
'J. Give au account of the Antiochus who was at Thermopylae. Of Seleucus Philopater. 



B.C.187.J ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES. 293 

ingenuity of this prince. In his reign occurred the incident of " Helio 
dorus in the temple," related in the book of Maccabees. 

10. Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, "Illustrious, 1 ' ascended the throne 
left vacant by the death of his brother, b. o. 176. He engaged in a 
war with his nephew, Ptolemy, and conquered all Egypt except Alex- 
andria. He took the young king prisoner, affected to act as his guar- 
dian, and to treat him with the greatest attention. The Egyptians, 
however, applied to the Romans, who, as arbiters, compelled Epiphanes 
to set the young king at liberty, and restore the cities he had taken 
from him. The Jews having revolted, the Syrian monarch marched 
into Judea. He besieged Jerusalem, and took it by storm. During 
the three days that the city was abandoned to the fury of the soldiers, 
80,000 Jews were put to death, and 40,000 taken prisoners. To his 
other crimes he added sacrilege. He forced his way into the temple, 
and ventured to enter the Holy of Holies. He carried away the altar 
of perfumes, the table for shew-bread, the seven-branched golden 
candlestick, and other precious things of the sanctuary. 

11. Some time after, Antiochus published a decree, requiring all the 
nations of his dominions to lay aside their ancient forms and ceremo- 
nies, and worship the gods he worshiped, after the same form and 
manner he had adopted. The Jews refused to comply with this com- 
mand, and such a horrid persecution arose as no pen can portray. At 
this time happened the martyrdom of Eleazar, and the seven Macca- 
bean brethren. "Tidings out of the east and out of the north" now 
troubled Antiochus. He divided his forces into two bodies; com- 
mitted one part to the command of Lysias, with orders to exterminate 
the Jews, while he led the other detachment against the Armenians. 
The army of Lysias met the little band of Jews, commanded by Judas 
Maccabeus, upon the plains of Mizpah. The Syrians were defeated, 
with dreadful slaughter. Two more battles gave the Jews such 
decided superiority that they marched to Jerusalem, recovered the 
sanctuary, re-dedicated it to the service of the true God, and devoted 
the week to thanksgiving and praise. 

12. Antiochus, hearing of the defeat of Lysias, set out himself for 
Judea. On his way, fresh expresses met him, saying that the Jews 
had thrown down his idols, overturned his altars, and re-established 
their ancient worship. At this intelligence he ordered his coachman 
to drive with the utmost speed, that he might satiate his vengeance by 

Questions. — 10. When did Antiochus Epiphanes ascend the throne? Who was his 
nephew ? What is said of the young king of Egypt ? What misfortune befell the Jews ? 
II, 12. What decree did Antiochus publish? What followed? What reverse happened tc 
Antiochus? How were the Jews benefited? 



294: SYRIA. [b. c. 176. 

making Jerusalem the burying-place of the whole Jewish nation. 
Scarcely had he uttered the impious words, when he was seized with 
the most excruciating pain; and as the horses were running at their 
greatest speed, he fell from his chariot. The agony of his bruises, 
added to the torment of his disease, drove him frantic. He imagined 
that specters hovered round, reproaching him with his crimes. Recog- 
nizing the hand of Divine justice in the anguish he suffered, he ex- 
claimed, " It is meet to be subject unto God, and man who is mortal 
should not think of himself as if he were a god." He promised if his 
life were spared to do magnificent things for Jerusalem ; but his sands 
were run. " He died a miserable death, in a strange country, in the 
mountains " (b. c. 176-164). 

13. Antiochus V., Eupator, a youth of nineteen, succeeded his 
father, but was soon dethroned by his cousin, Demetrius, who had 
been a hostage in Rome many years. Demetrius freed the Babylo- 
nians from a petty tyrant, and made war upon the Jews. Judas Mac- 
cabeus was dead, but by this time the Romans had extended their 
powerful protection to the Jews, and Demetrius, having made peace 
with them, proceeded to act the king in a more comic manner. He 
erected a castle in Antioch, flanked by four towers, where he shut 
himself up to follow the directions of Sardanapalus, "eat, drink, and 
sleep." This delightful life was disturbed by a young man, who, pre- 
tending to be the son of Epiphanes, had been acknowledged king by 
the Romans. Demetrius quitted the castle of Indolence, and buckled 
on the panoply of war. In the first battle he was defeated and slain. 
Alexander the Usurper then made himself master of Syria. Pto- 
lemy gave him his daughter, Cleopatra, in marriage ; and Alexander, 
thinking his fortune made, determined to give himself no further 
trouble with public affairs. We do not know whether he chose the 
castle of Demetrius for the scene of his pleasures, but he followed 
exactly his course of life, and came to an end precisely similar. 

14. Demetrius II., Nicator, son of the former king, put forward his 
claim to the throne. Alexander called on his father-in-law for assist- 
ance. Ptolemy Philometer accordingly marched into Palestine with 
a large army, but finding that a plot was on foot in Alexander's camp to 
poison him, he took his daughter away from her husband, gave her to the 
young Demetrius, and engaged to assist him with all his forces. Alex- 
ander was defeated and slain. Demetrius, now acknowledged king of 

Questions.— VI. Give the closing account of Antiochus. 13,14. Who succeeded Antiochua 
IV. ? What can you say of him ? Give the history of Demetrius. Of Alexander the 
Usurper. In what way did Ptolemy Philometer aid the young Demetrius? 



B. c. 146.] SYRIA A ROMAN PROVINCE. 295 

Syria, followed the example of his two immediate predecessors, till a 
revolution in favor of Alexander's son drove him from the throne. In 
his wanderings and fightings he was taken prisoner by the Parthians, 
and detained in captivity many years. Cleopatra shut herself up in a 
strong city with her children, and continued faithful to the memory of 
Demetrius, till, hearing that he had married a Parthian lady, all her 
vindictive passions were aroused (b. c. 146-140). 

15. She sent to Antiochus VII., Sidetes, brother of her perfidious 
husband, offering to set aside the claims of her children, marry him, 
and be once more queen. The offer was accepted, the nuptials speedily 
solemnized, and the usurper not long after slain. Demetrius, mean- 
while, was making every effort to escape from his keepers and return 
to Syria. Antiochus, apprehensive that he would be successful, 
marched into Parthia, determined to destroy this rival brother, and 
conquer the country at one blow. He was, however, slain in battle, 
and Demetrius returned to Syria. The inconstant queen forgave his 
marriage with the Parthian lady, and acknowledged him Syria's king 
and Cleopatra's lord. This second honeymoon was very short. The 
king of Egypt made war upon Demetrius, and defeated him in a 
pitched battle. The unfortunate monarch fled to the city of his queen, 
but the gates were shut against him. He fell into the hands of his 
enemies, and was put to death. 

16. Seleucus V., the eldest son of Demetrius and Cleopatra, now 
ascended the throne ; but as he did not admit his mother to a share of 
power, she stabbed him with her own hand. She then sent to Athens 
for her second son, and caused him to be declared king immediately 
upon his return. Antiochus VIII. had the surname of Grypus, from 
his great nose. His mother presented him a cup of poisoned wine, but 
he compelled her to drink it herself. Syria was thus delivered from a 
monster that had so long disgraced the names of wife, mother, and 
queen. Grypus lived after this 27 years. His reign was disturbed 
by the intrigues of his brothers, both of whom contended for the 
crown. 

17. Syria becomes a Roman Province. — b. o. 65. — Grypus left 
five sons, all of whom were kings, or at least pretenders to the throne. 
Seleucus VI., the eldest, was killed in a mutiny of the citizens, in 
which his house was set on fire. Antiochus and Philip, the next two 
brothers, were twins. One was drowned in attempting to swim across 

Questions. — 14. What misfortunes happened to the latter? 15. What part did the wife 
of Demetrius take? Give the history of Antiochus Sidetes. Of Demetrius Nicator. 16. 
Of Seleucus V. Of Antiochus VIII. 17. How many sons did he leave? Give their history. 
What further can you say of the race of Seleucus ? Of Syria? 



296 SYRIA. [b. c. 100. 

a river, and the other spent the rest of his reign in fighting with the 
two younger boys. The kingdom of Syria was torn in pieces by the 
factions of the royal family, or by usurpers who established themselves 
for a little time as kings in various cities and districts. Finally, 
Pompey reduced Syria to a Roman province. The race of Seleucus 
thus became extinct, or was lost in the common tide of human life 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGB 

1. Who was Lysimachus ? 289 

2. What account can you give of him ? 272, 275, 289 

3. Who was Ceraunus ? 289 

4. Give an account of him 289, 290 

5. Who was Seleucus ? 275, 291 

6. Give an account of him 275, 291 

7. What is said of Antiochus I. ? 291 

8. Of Antiochus II. ? 291 

9. Seleucus II.? , 292 

10. Seleucus III. ? 292 

11. Antiochus ? 292 

12. Seleucus IV. ? 292 

13. Antiochus IT. ? 293 

14. Antiochus V.? 294 

15. Demetrius ? 294 

16. What is said of Alexander the Usurper ? 294 

17. Who was Demetrius II.? 294 

18. Give an account of his successes and failures 294, 295 

19. What is said of Antiochus Sidetes ? 295 

20. Who was Seleucus V. ? 295 

21. Give the account of him 295 

22. What can you state of Antiochus Grypus ? 295 

23. Of Grypus's sons? 295, 296 

24. When did Syria become a Roman province ? 296 



EGYPT. 

SECTION VI. 

1. b. o. 300. The Thkee Good Ptolemies. — Dynasty of the 

Lagid^e. 

I 1 I Ptolemy Soter, began to reign, 323. 



a 



Ptolemy Philadelplius, 
Ptolemy Euergetes, 
41 Ptolemy Philopater, 
5| Ptolemy Epiphanes, 
6 I Ptolemy Philometer, 
7 I Ptolemy Physcon, 
8 Ptolemy Lathyrus, 

J^v Cleopatra Berenice. 
Ptolemy Auletes. 
/\ Berenice. 

Ptolemy Dionysius. 



283. 
247. 
222. 
205. 
181. 
146. 
117. 



Ptolemy. 
Cleopatra. 



Egypt becomes a Roman Province, 



13* 



298 EGYPT. [b. c. 323. 

"When tM empire of Alexander was dismembered, each general 
taking a limb, Ptolemy secured the "lion's share; 1 ' not indeed in 
extent of country, but in the wealth and submissive disposition of his 
subjects He was the reputed son of Lagus, and the dynasty founded 
by him was called the Lagida3. The era is reckoned from b. c. 318, 
though he did not assume the title of king till after the battle of Ipsus, 
301. 

2. Ptolemy I., Soter, was distinguished not only as a warrior but 
as a ruler; he was accessible to all his subjects, simple in his manners, 
and a lover of learning. He wrote a life of Alexander, and founded an 
academy at Alexandria, to which he gave the greatest library in the 
world. It was his two daughters who were married to Lysimachus 
and Agathocles ; and it was his eldest son, Ceraunus, who, exasperated 
because his brother Philadelphus was preferred before him, fled to 
Thrace, and, to gain the throne of that country, murdered the aged 
Seleucus and the two sons of his sister, Arsinoe. Two years before 
the death of Ceraunus, Ptolemy Soter associated Philadelphus, his 
second son, in the government; and the coronation of the young 
prince was attended with a grand display of all the wealth and splen- 
dor Egypt could boast. 

3. Ptolemy II. was called Philadelphus, " Lover of his Brother," 
perhaps ironically, because he had supplanted Ceraunus. He might 
properly have been called Philemon, " Lover of Learning," for all the 
wars and tumults which prevailed thoughout the world could not turn 
away his attention from the great work of completing the library 
which his father had founded. Every book brought into Egypt was 
seized and copied ; the copies were handed back to the proprietors, 
and the originals laid up in the library. The price he paid for the 
Scriptures will illustrate the sacrifices he made to gratify his ruling 
passion. Hearing that the Jews possessed a remarkable book con- 
taining the laws of Moses, he determined to possess it. He collected 
all the Hebrew slaves in his dominions, amounting to 120,000, and 
sent them home, accompanied by embassadors bearing presents and 
letters, and making a request for the holy volume. 

4. The ransomed Jews and the deputies were received at Jerusalem 
with the greatest joy. An authentic copy of the Scriptures, written 
in letters of gold, was given to the Egyptians by the high-priest him- 

Egypt.— Section VI.— Questions.— 1. Who was the founder of the Lagidss? What was 
his origin? In what way did he gain Egypt? When did he begin to reign ? 2. For what 
was Ptolemy Sitter distinguished ? Was he an author? What did he write? What else 
did he do? Who was his eldest son? Who his second son? What can you state of the 
second son ? 3. What is said •>{ the library Of l' « means taken to get the Scriptures i 



B. c. 283.] PTOLEMY III. 299 

self, and six elders from each tribe were sent home with them to 
translate the Hebrew into a Greek version. The elders were con- 
ducted to the island of Pharos, lodged in a house prepared for their 
reception, and plentifully supplied with every thing necessary for their 
comfort. When their work was complete it was read before the king, 
who dismissed the faithful scribes with magnificent presents. This 
version was called the Septuagint translation, from seventy elders 
having been employed upon it. 

5. The famous watch-tower of Alexandria was completed in his 
reign. This tower, which was called Pharos, and passed for one of 
the seven wonders of the world, was built of white marble, story above 
story, adorned with columns and galleries of exquisite workmanship. 
On the top, fires were kept burning to guide mariners into the bay. 
Philadelphus also kept two powerful fleets, one in the Mediterranean, 
and the other in the Red Sea, by which means he made Egypt the 
mart of the world. Though he expended such vast sums in strength- 
ening his kingdom, and constructing public works, yet Egypt was 
never richer or happier than during his reign. In his old age, he 
accompanied his daughter, Berenice, into Syria, and assisted at the 
solemnization of her nuptials with Antiochus II., husband of the repu- 
diated Laodice. 

6. Ptolemy III., Euergetes, ascended the throne of Egypt b. o. 285 
After Antiochus had banished his sister, Berenice, and recalled Lao- 
dice, Euergetes engaged in a war with the Syrians, and overran their 
country as far as Bactria. Among the plunder of the cities, he found 
those idols which Oambyses stole from Egypt, and, carrying them 
home, recommitted them to the care of the priests. For this pious 
act he was surnamed Euergetes, " Benefactor." When he set out on 
this expedition, his wife, Berenice, made a vow to consecrate her hair 
to the gods if they would bring her husband home in safety. Imme- 
diately upon his return she caused her head to be shorn, and her 
beautiful locks to be hung up in the temple of Venus. The conse-. 
crated hair was stolen not long after, and when the priests were called 
to account, they gravely affirmed that it had been taken to heaven, and 
gazing fixedly into the sky, declared they could see the light of the 
golden locks. Some astronomers, equally sharp-sighted, were enabled 
also to discern a constellation never before noted, to which they gave 

Questions.— 4. What great benefit did Ptolemy confer upon the world ? Give the par- 
ticulars. 5. What is said of the watch-tower? Of the two fleets? Of the richness and 
happiness of Egypt? What did the king do in his old age? 6. Who was the next king of 
Egypt? When did he ascend the throne? In what war did he become engaged? What 
did he accomplish? Why was he called Euergetes? Why is he mentioned in astronomy? 



300 EGYPT. [b. o. 222 

the name of "Berenice's hair." This beautiful cluster of stars is 
situated in the diamond of Virgo. Euergetes did not forget to enrich 
his library with all the books and paintings which could be ob- 
tained in any part of the world. He was the third and last good 
Ptolemy. 

7. Ptolemy IV. was called Philopater, "Lover of Father," from a 
suspicion that he hastened his father's death. He commenced his 
reign by the murder of his mother, Berenice, and his brother, Magus. 
The character which he thus acquired for violence and cruelty was 
sustained by all the succeeding acts of his life. This was the prince 
who engaged in a war with Antiochus the Great, and wrested from 
him a great part of Syria. Satisfied with conquest, Philopater gave 
himself up to every species of vice. Women, and those women not 
his wives, governed every thing at court, and conferred all honors and 
employments throughout the kingdom. His wife shared the fate of 
his mother and brother, and many distinguished individuals fell vic- 
tims to the corruption of the times. 

8. At last, worn out with dissipation, his constitution gave way. 
No one that deserved the appellation of friend was present when he 
died. Two or three of his creatures saw him breathe his last, but 
instead of committing his body to the proper officers, and ordering a 
general mourning, they concealed his death till they had carried off 
all the gold and jewels from the palace. "When, however, his decease 
became publicly known, and the people reflected upon the probable 
fate of the young prince left to the care of these vile usurpers of 
power, they assembled and put them all to the sword. Their dead 
bodies were dragged through the streets, and torn in pieces by the 
multitude. 

9. Four wicked Ptolemies Reign. — b. o. 205. Ptolemy V., 
Epiphanes. No sooner did Antiochus, king of Syria, and Philip, king 
of Macedon, learn that the scepter of Egypt had fallen into the hands 
of a child, than they determined to seize upon the cities which had 
been so long in dispute, and settle the boundaries of the countries to 
suit themselves. Antiochus carried out his designs by conquering 
Ccelo-Syria and Palestine, but Philip had so much to do in Greece that 
his plans failed. When Antiochus embarked in his great enterprise 
of the league against Rome, he made peace with Ptolemy Epiphanes, 
and gave him his daughter in marriage. The young queen was 

Questions.— 6. What is said of the library? 7, S. Who next became king? Why was 
he called Philopater? How did he commence his reign? What further can you say of 
him? What is said, of his death? 9. By whom was he succeeded? What two ki.igs 
formed a league against Ptolemy V. ? How did his wife manifest her attachment? 



B. c. 181.] PTOLEMY YI 301 

expected to act as a spy in the Egyptian court, but her attachment to 
her husband overcame her reverence for her father, and she even 
joined in the embassy which went to congratulate the Romans on the 
victory they gained over Antiochas at Thermopylae. 

10. After the death of his father-in-law, Epiphanes determined to 
wrest from his successor, Seleucus, those cities which had been taken 
from Egypt in the commencement of his reign. His courtiers inquired 
where he expected to obtain money for furnishing his army. " My 
people are my treasure," replied the king. Inferring from this answer 
that he intended to take unwarrantable liberties with their purses, his 
parasites caused him to be poisoned. He had reigned twenty-four 
) ears. 

11. Ptolemy VI., Philometer, "Lover of his Mother," was pro- 
claimed king at the age of six years, and his mother declared regent. 
As soon as he was old enough to understand war to be the game of 
kings, he commenced hostilities with Antiochus Epiphanes for the 
recovery of those cities which had passed from one government to 
another so many times. He was taken prisoner and kept in confine- 
ment, while his brother, Physcon, administered the aflfairs of the king- 
dom. Philometer escaped from the too-loving watch of his guardian, 
and united his fortunes with his brother. This brought Antiochus on 
his third expedition into Egypt. Philometer sent for help to the 
Romans. The embassadors deputed by this people to settle the affair 
landed in Egypt, and came up with Antiochus about a mile from 
Alexandria. They handed him dispatches, and waited in silence while 
he read them. Antiochus, wishing to gain time, told the envoys he 
would consult with his friends, and give them an answer soon. The 
consul drew a line about him as he stood in the sand, and, raising his 
voice, " Answer," said he, " the senate of Rome before you stir out of 
that circle." The king, quite confounded, submissively replied, that 
he would do as the Romans desired. Accordingly, he left Egypt at 
the stipulated time, and restored the cities of Cyprus. 

12. Some commentators think Antiochus and Philometer the " two 
kings who spoke lies at one table," and recognize the intervention of 
the Romans in the passage, "the ships of Chittim shall come against 
him," &c. The two brothers could not live in peace. Physcon 
expelled Philometer, who fled to Rome. The senate settled the dis- 
pute by a partition of the kingdom between the brothers. Physcon, 

Questions. — 10. Relate the circumstances of his death. 11. Who succeeded him ? When 
was Ptolemy Philometer declared king? Why did he engage in war? What misfortune 
befell him ? Who was Physcon ? What did the llomans do ? Antiochus ? 12. Read Dud, 
xi. 30. What disagreement took place 



302 EGYPT. [b. c. 146 

who was dissatisfied with his portion, thought proper to try the effect 
of his person in Rome. The senate received him favorably, and added 
Cyprus to his dominions; but when he came to ask the hand of Cor- 
nelia, the mother of the Gracchi, in marriage, he learned that the 
daughter of Scipio could despise a crown. Physcon returned to 
Cyprus, but Philometer made war upon him, and took him prisoner. 
This Philometer was the king who took his daughter Cleopatra from 
Alexander, and gave her to Demetrius; and this Cleopatra was the 
wicked queen who was the wife of three kings, and the mother of four. 

13. Ptolemy VIL, Physcon, "the Corpulent," ascended the throne 
of Egypt after the death of Philometer, b. o. 145. He married Philo- 
meter's widow, and murdered .her son, the heir apparent, in her arms; 
and he put so many of the friends of his brother to death, that Alex- 
andria was almost depopulated. Philosophers, mathematicians, physi- 
cians, and men of science and letters, who had been called together by 
the generous policy which founded the school and libraries of the city, 
sought a more congenial atmosphere than the court of a corrupt king. 
Thus the cruelty of this tyrant scattered the seeds of learning in all the 
neighboring countries. To re-people his city, Physcon offered the 
deserted houses rent free to those who would come from foreign parts 
and take up their abode in them. 

14. In this manner the inhabitants of Alexandria became a mixture 
of every people, tribe, and tongue ; hut the new settlers soon perceived 
that they had gained nothing by subjecting themselves to the will of a 
tyrant. Physcon, fearing the just indignation of his subjects, caused 
the young men of Alexandria to be assembled in a public place, and 
ordered his foreign troops to put them to death. All Egypt then 
revolted, and the wicked king was forced to flee to Cyprus, while 
Cleopatra, his divorced queen, ascended the throne. Her reign was, 
however, short, for Physcon collected an army, reinstated himself by 
force of arms, and reigned for some time, feared by his enemies, and 
hated by his subjects (he had no friends) ; his own wife sought his 
destruction, and he murdered his own son. 

15. Cleopatra. — Egypt Subdued. —Ptolemy VHT. — b. c. 146-11 7. — 
surnamed Lathyrus, from the mark of a pea on his nose, succeeded his 
father, after many quarrels with his mother and brother. Lathyrus 
reigned 36 years, during which Egypt was constantly distracted by the 

Questions. — 12. What dirt Philometer gain by going to Rome? What did Physcon gaiD 
by going? What did he not gain? What further is said of Philometer? What is said ol 
Cleopatra? 13, 14. When dirt Ptolemy Physcon become king? Of what cruelties was he 
guilty? What then was he forced to do? What further can you state of him? 15. Who 
*vjxt ascended the throne ? What troubles did Lathyrus have ? 



B.C. 80.] PTOLEMY AULETES. 303 

dissensions of the royal family. Berenice, his only legitimate child, 
succeeded him, but as, according to the custom of the country, all the 
sons took the name of Ptolemy, and all the daughters that of Cleo- 
patra, she was called Cleopatra Berenice. Sylla, at that time dictator 
of Rome, sent her cousin, Alexander, to claim the throne. He con- 
cluded to take Berenice in marriage, and permit her to retain the title 
of queen ; but subsequently repented of his lenity, and put her to 
death. The fifteen years of Alexander's reign were spent in violence 
and cruelty ; and finally the Alexandrians expelled him, and called 
Ptolemy Auletes, an illegitimate son of Lathyrus, to assume the reins 
of their government. 

16. Ptolemy Auletes, to p»rchase the protection of the Romans, 
entered into an agreement to pay Julius Ca3sar, the consul, a sura 
equal to $90,000. The taxes which he levied to meet this engage- 
ment exasperated his subjects, and he was obliged to fly for his life. 
The Egyptians proclaimed his daughter, Berenice, queen. Auletes, 
meantime, made his way to Rome. Caesar was absent in Gaul, but 
Pompey received the exile kindly, gave him an apartment in his house, 
and omitted no occasion of serving him. His business in Rome 
detained him long. The senate had no army to send into Egypt, and 
he was forced to wait till a change in the consulship was effected. 
While the Romans hesitated, the Egyptians acted. The government 
of a woman could not satisfy them. They therefore sent to Seleucus, 
one of the last princes of Syria, offering him the hand of Berenice and 
the sovereignty of Egypt. 

17. Seleucus came immediately to Alexandria, married his queen, 
and put on his crown ; but avarice made him deaf alike to the call of 
love and ambition. His first care was to cause the body of Alexander 
the Great to be put into a coffin of glass, while he melted the golden 
one into a more convenient form for transportation. Berenice, dis- 
gusted with his meanness, employed some of her creatures to strangle 
him. Auletes returned not long after, supported by Mark Antony 
and a Roman army. The people were forced to acknowledge him for 
their sovereign, and with a Roman body-guard he was enabled to take 
vengeance upon his enemies. His daughter, Berenice, was the first 
victim ; then followed those whose great wealth tempted his cupidity. 

Questions. — 15. Who succeeded him ? What was her fate ? What is said of Alexan- 
der's reign? Who was Ptolemy Auletes? To what position did he attain? State how. 

16. What agreement did Auletes enter into? What were the consequences? Who then 
became queen ? Who V ecame her husband ? In what way was the marriage brought about ? 

17. What was the first care of Seleucus ? What became (i him? What further is stated of 
Auletes? 



304- EGYPT. [b.c. 51 

The Egyptians suffered these violences without a murmur; but when 
a Roman soldier killed a cat, the whole authority of Ptolemy could not 
prevent their tearing him to pieces. 

18. Ptolemy Auletes died b. o. 51, leaving two sons and two daugh- 
ters. By his will he directed that Cleopatra, the eldest daughter, 
should marry Ptolemy Dionysius, the eldest son, and reign jointly 
with him, under the guardianship of Pompey the Great. These direc- 
tions were followed ; but three years after, the ministers of Ptolemy 
having deprived Cleopatra of her share in the government, she escaped 
to byria. It was precisely at this juncture that Pompey, having fled 
from the plains of Pharsalia, arrived in Egypt to claim an asylum from 
his enemies. But Egypt was not the place to seek friends in the day 
of adversity. The fear of Caesar had arrived there before him. The 
artful ministers of the young king dared not counsel to receive the 
unfortunate Roman, lest Caesar should call them to account ; they 
dared not send him away, lest he should retrieve his affairs, and return 
to punish their ingratitude. The proverb, "Dead men do not bite," 
urged by the tutor of the king, decided the fate of the illustrious fugi- 
tive. Ptolemy, with his parasites, went down to the shore, as if to 
welcome the arrival of his guardian ; and looked on with the greatest 
unconcern, while those appointed to do the bloody deed assassinated 
the noble Roman, cut off his head as a present for Caesar, and threw 
his body naked on the strand. 

19. When Caesar, in pursuit of Pompey, landed in Alexandria, he 
found every thing in confusion. Referring to the will of the late king, 
he ordered Cleopatra and Dionysius to appear before him, declaring 
that, as Roman consul, it was necessary for him to settle the differences 
between the brother and sister, alias, the husband and wife. Cleo- 
patra, conscious of the power of her beauty, determined to use it in 
furthering her ambitious projects. With only one attendant, she was 
rowed to the walls of the citadel of Alexandria in the night. There 
her servant wrapped her up in a bundle of clothes, put a thong care- 
fully around her, and carried her as a bale of gooda into Caesar's 
apartment. The first apparition of this lovely creature decided the 
heart of the conqueror in her favor. The next day he decreed that 
Cleopatra and her brother should reign jointly, according to the will, 
and that the younger brother and sister should have Cyprus. 

Questions. — 18. When did he die? Can you name any provision of his will? Why did 
Cleopatra escape to Syria? What happened at this juncture? How did the Egyptians 
reason about the reception of Pompey? What was the sequel? 19. Whom did Catsur pur- 
sue into Egypt? What persons did Caesar order to appear before Mm? dow Aid Cleopatra 
effect her purpose ? What decree did Caesar make ? 



b. c. 47.] CLEOPATRA. 305 

20. Ptolemy was dissatisfied with this decision. He stirred up the 
jeople to make an attempt upon the Eoman fleet. To prevent his 

galleys from falling into the enemy's hands, Caesar set them on fire. 
Some of them were driven by the wind so near the quay, that the 
flames caught the neighboring houses, and spread throughout the 
quarter called Bruchion, consuming a part of the books in the famous 
library. A series of similar attacks and reprisals went on between 
Caesar and the Egyptians while he stayed in Alexandria. Finally, a 
decisive battle was fought, and Ptolemy, attempting to escape in a 
little boat, was drowned. All Egypt then submitted. Caesar gave 
the crown to Cleopatra, in conjunction with her younger brother, 
Ptolemy XL, then eleven years of age. He took Arsinoe, the other 
sister, with him to Rome, where she walked in his triumph in chains 
of gold, but immediately after he permitted her to retire to Asia. 

21. b. c. 41. At the age of fourteen, the young king demanded his 
share in the government. Cleopatra therefore poisoned him, and 
remained sole possessor of the regal authority. After the battle of 
Philippi, when Mark Antony passed over into Asia to establish the 
authority of the triumvirate, all the kings, princes, and governors of 
the provinces were cited to appear before him. Among others, Cleo- 
patra was summoned. This princess, then twenty-five years old, had 
added to her unrivaled attractions all the fascinations which a culti- 
vated mind and a graceful address can give to beauty of face and 
elegance of person. She was a proficient in music; she could con- 
verse with Ethiopians, Jews, Syrians, Medes, Greeks, and Italians, 
without an interpreter; and she understood every blandishment which 
a voluptuous court had devised to give effect to female charms. Pro- 
viding herself with rich presents, large sums of money, and the most 
magnificent robes and ornaments, she set off for Tarsus, where Antony 
waited to receive her. 

22. She sailed up the Cydnus in a barge with sails of purple silk, 
and oars flashing with silver. A pavilion of cloth of gold was raised 
upon the deck, under which she reclined, habited like Venus, with 
beautiful damsels representing the Nereids and Graces worshiping 
around her. Flutes, hautboys, harps, and the softest instruments of 
music, filled the air with harmony, to which the gentle dip of the oars 

Questions.— 20. Who was dissatisfied with the decision? What misfortune to the world 
of letters occurred ? Give the final account of Ptolemy. Who then were appointed to rule 
Egypt? What is said of Arsinoe? 21. What became of Ptolemy XI.? When did that 
occur? What accomplishments of mind did Cleopatra possess? What is said of her other 
acquirements? What summons did she heed? With what did she provide hersplf for the 
occasion ? 22. Give a description of her pageant. 



306 EGYPT. [b. c. 41. 

kept regular time, while the perfume of costly incense regaled the 
senses of the multitudes who crowded the banks to gaze upon the 
lovely pageant. A rumor was spread that the goddess Venus had 
come to visit the god Bacchus, and if Cleopatra so well personated the 
queen of beauty, Antony, on his part, sustained his character of the 
prince of revelers, in all its essentials. As soon as the mimic fleet had 
come to anchor, Antony sent to invite her to supper. She replied, 
that she had already ordered an entertainment upon the banks of the 
river, where she would receive him as her guest. Antony went ; and 
that interview sealed his fate. 

23. His love of glory, wealth, and power was lost in his absorbing 
passion for the fascinating princess ; and while his wife, Fulvia, was 
supporting his interest at home against Octavius Caesar, and his lieu- 
tenants in the east were preparing for war in Syria, he was led off like 
a captive in the train of Cleopatra to Alexandria. There the veteran 
warrior fell into every idle excess of puerile amusement, and offered 
at the shrine of luxury what one has called the greatest of all sacri- 
fices — the sacrifice of time. There was no end to their feasts and 
entertainments; each vied with the other in magnificence and expense. 
On one occasion Cleopatra laid a wager that she would expend a mil- 
lion (a sum equal to $250,000) upon one supper. Antony took up the 
bet ; and Plaucus, a mutual friend, was to decide it. The banquet was 
prepared ; Antony inquired the price of every dish, and after calcu- 
lating the expense, said, " You are still far short of a million." The tabic 
was cleared, and a single cup of vinegar placed before the queen. 
" Now," said she, with an air of triumph, " I will see if I cannot spend 
a mil ion upon myself alone." She took the cup, and, unclasping one 
of the pearls from her ear, threw it into the vinegar, and, when it was 
dissolved, swallowed it at a single draught ! She was preparing to do 
the same by the other,* when Plaucus stopped her, declaring she had 
won the bet. 

24. In the midst of these scenes of dissipation Antony received 
intelligence that his wife, Fulvia, had been overpowered, and driven 
out of Italy by Octavius Caesar; and that the Parthians had subju- 
gated Asia, from the Euphrates to Ionia. Waking literally from a fit 
of intoxication, he set sail with a fleet of 200 ships to meet his wife 

* This pearl was afterwards carried to Eome by Augustus, cut in two, and hung in the 
ears of the statue of Venus 

Questions. — 22. What rumor was spread? What invitation did Antony extend? What 
was the reply? 23. What followed? Give an account of the celebrated bet and banquet. 
24 What intelligence did Antony receive ? What then did he do ? 



B. c. 39.] ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. 307 

in Greece. He found her at Sicyon, sick. After reproaching her for 
being the cause of a war with Cassar, he left her to die among 
strangers, and proceeded toward Italy. Caesar, not being prepared 
for hostilities, threw all the blame of the late commotions upon Fulvia, 
and offered to accommodate matters by dividing the empire, giving 
Antony that portion east of the Adriatic, while he took the west. 
His sister, Octavia, a woman of great beauty and merit, was, by decree 
of the senate, excused from mourning for her husband, just deceased, 
that she might cement the union by giving her hand to Antony. 

25. The nuptials were celebrated at Rome, and Antony seemed for 
a time to forget, in the society of this charming woman, the wrongs of 
the dead Fulvia, and the love of the forsaken Cleopatra. He even 
took Octavia back with him to Greece, and lived with her some time 
at Athens ; but when the Parthian war called him to Syria, the 
fascinations of Cleopatra resumed their full power over his soul. 
He sent for her to meet him again in Tarsus, and, upon her arri- 
val, made her a present of several kingdoms. His attachment to 
her proved the ruin of the Parthian expedition. He was furnished 
with a fine army and plentiful supplies, but his desire to return and 
spend the winter with her in Alexandria, caused him to set off too 
early in the spring, and to travel so fast that the engines of war were 
left behind and seized by the enemy. Having penetrated into Media, 
and engaged in a long and fruitless siege of a city in which the Par- 
thian king kept his wives he was glad to accept of permission to 
retreat in safety before the autumnal equinox. 

26. In the backward march the Romans suffered every privation. 
Such was the famine, that a barley loaf sold for its weight in silver ; 
and at one time great numbers of the soldiers partook of a root which 
brought on madness and death. Thus, while his army was perishing 
around him, Antony frequently exclaimed, "0 the Ten Thousand, " 
alluding to the famous "retreat" which Xenophon had effected 
through the same dangers which now beset himself. The severity 
of winter was such that he lost 8,000 men before he reached Sidon. 
Accompanied by a small party, he went down to a little fort called 
White Hair, and looked across the sea for the vessels of Cleopatra. 
They were not in sight, and he had recourse to intoxication to drown 
his impatience. Sometimes he would start from the table and run 
leaping and dancing to look out for her approach. She came at length, 

Questions.— "2A. How did he treat his wife, Fulvia? What arrangement did he make with 
Caesar? Whom did he then marry? 25. Did he live with Octavia losg? How did he fall 
again into the society of Cleopatra? What was the consequence of his attachment to 
Cleopatra ? 26. Give an account of the sufferings cf Antony's army. Of Antony's conduct 



308 EGYPT [b. c. 35. 

bringing kirge quantities of money and clothing for the troops. Octa- 
via, too, had collected soldiers, beasts of burden, money, and presents 
for the officers, and set out to meet Antony. The infatuated general, 
nevertheless, sent her word to remain at Athens, saying that he was 
about to make another campaign against the Parthians. Cleopatra, 
however, appeared so afflicted at his leaving her again, that he put off 
his expedition and accompanied her to Egypt. 

27. There he acted a farce more ridiculous than all his preceding 
follies. He called a public assembly of the Egyptians, and ordering 
two golden chairs to be placed on a tribunal of silver, one for himself, 
and the other for Cleopatra, he crowned her queen of Egypt, Cyprus, 
Africa, and Ccelo-Syria, nominating Cesario, her son by Julius Caesar, 
as her colleague. His own two sons, Alexander and Ptolemy, then 
took their seats on two thrones prepared at the feet of their mother. 
Alexander, clothed in a Median dress, with the turban and tiara, was 
proclaimed king of Media, Armenia, and Parlhia, when it should be 
conquered. Ptolemy wore the Macedonian long cloak and slippers, 
with a bonnet encircled by a diadem. He was made king of Phenicia, 
Syria, and Cilicia. Cleopatra wore, on this occasion, the sacred robe 
of Isis,* and gave audience to the people under the name of the ** New 
Isis." Antony put the finishing touch to these absurdities by sending 
a minute account of his measures to Rome. 

28. When the injured Octavia returned to Athens, her brother 
ordered her to quit Antony's house, but she refused, and still con- 
tinued to take care of Fulvia's children, and her own, with all the 
tenderness which the most devoted wife could feel for her husband's 
offspring. Her conduct, however, only injured Antony's cause ; for 
when the people saw the neglect with which such a woman was 
treated, their indignation was aroused, and they were ready to listen 
to all Caesar's insinuations against his colleague. The report of what 
Antony had done in Egypt added fuel to the flame, so that when he 
began to make preparations for renewing the civil war, and sent to 
turn Octavia out of his house, they readily concurred in the decree of 
war against Cleopatra. 

29. Antony had 500 armed vessels, 100,000 foot, 10,000 horse, and 
a great many auxiliaries. Caesar had half as many vessels, three- 
fourths as many foot, and an equal number of horse. Cleopatra would 

* This robe was of all colors, to signify the universality of the goddess's influence. 

Questions.— 26. What relief came? What is said of Octavia's exertions? What worJ 
did Antony send to his wife? Did he do so-? 27. What farce did he act? 28. How <liil 
Antony's treatment of Cleopatra affect his popularity at home? 29. Describe hiB prepare 
tions to meet Augustus. 



B. c. 31.J ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. 309 

go in person to this war (because she feared a reconciliation between 
Antony and Octavia), and, what was worse, she insisted that the first- 
engagements should be fought at sea, though Antony's land forces 
were complete, and his ships had not half their complement of men. 
The officers were in consequence obliged to pick up in Greece vagrants, 
mule-drivers, reapers, and boys. The other preparations showed 
equally the temerity and folly which governed the counsels of Antony. 
While one ship brought soldiers, another arrived filled with players 
and buffoons; one messenger came with news of the arrival of men 
and provisions, while another announced the advent of a long-expected 
theatrical apparatus. At last, in spite of all delays from adverse winds, 
and Cleopatra's caprices, Antony reached Actium with his fleet, while 
that of Augustus was anchored not far off upon the coast of Epirus. 

30. Battle of Aotium. — This engagement was fougnt in the bay 
of Actium. The prows of the vessels were armed with brazen points, 
which it was the object of the sailors to drive against the sides of the 
enemy's galleys ; but as Antony's ships were very large, he could not 
turn them readily, and one was often surrounded by two or three of 
Caesar's, the men of which threw firebrands, pikes, and javelins at the 
crew, as though they were storming a town. While the fight was 
going on, Cleopatra's sixty galleys hoisted their sails, and took to flight 
through the midst of the combatants. No sooner did Antony see her 
vessel under way, than, forgetting the brave men who were shedding 
their blood in his cause, he took a couple of friends with him, and 
rowed after her with all his might. Having overtaken her, he went 
on board her galley, but for three days, either through shame or 
resentment, did not speak to her. At last the attendants effected a 
reconciliation, and they proceeded together to Lydia, after Antony 
had stopped long enough in Greece to recommend his followers to be 
reconciled to Cassar. Having sent Cleopatra forward to Alexandria, 
he shut himself up on a desert island and affected to act the part of 
Timon, the man-hater ; but the strong attraction of the Egyptian 
siren drew him from his retreat, and, once again embarked upon the 
sea of dissipation, his guilty love knew neither pause nor stop till it 
reached its proper end — destruction. 

31. Cleopatra and Antony had before established a society called 
The Inimitable Livers ; they now instituted another, called The Com- 
panions in Death/ Though the Egyptian queen had destroyed all 

Questions.— 30. Where was Actium ? (See map No. 2.) Give an account of the battle. 
Of Cleopatra's conduct Of Antony's subsequent condu ».t 31. What is sai£ of the two 
societies ? 



310 EGYPT. [b. c. 30. 

whom she suspected of being friendly to Caesar, yet, fearful still of fall- 
ing into his hands, she formed the design of drawing her galleys over 
the isthmus of Suez, and sailing in them down the Eed Sea, in search 
of some remote country where she might see no more war. This 
plan was frustrated by the Arabians, who set her ships on fire. Know- 
ing that Caesar would sooner or later arrive in Egypt, and that her 
fatal beauty would prove but an ornament for his triumph, Cleopatra 
began to look to death for a refuge from disgrace. She collected all 
kinds of poisons, and tried them upon criminals in the prisons, and 
examined, also, the effect of venom upon the human system. By these 
experiments she found that the bite of the asp produced death with 
the least pain of body or contortion of visage, persons affected by it 
sinking away as in a gentle sleep. 

32. Meanwhile, Antony sent to beg his life of Caesar; and Egypt 
for Cleopatra and her children. The conqueror rejected Antony's 
petition, but said that Cleopatra might expect every favor if she would 
banish or poison the man she had so long held in her chains. The 
queen had caused a magnificent monument to be erected near the tem- 
ple of Isis, into which she removed her treasures and a large quantity 
of flax, with a great number of torches. She gave orders to-her govern- 
ors to submit to Caesar, so that when he came round by way of Syria 
and Pelusium he found no obstacle till he reached Alexandria, where 
Antony, in the last effort of expiring valor, determined to give battle, 
by sea and land. Drawing up his army upon an eminence, he sent 
out his galleys to the attack ; but what was his despair and rage when 
he saw Cleopatra's admiral advance, and surrender the whole fleet to 
the Romans. 

33. He grew desperate, and sent to challenge Caesar to single com- 
bat. Caesar replied, " If Antony is weary of life, there are ways 
enough to die." Ridiculed by Augustus and betrayed by Cleopatra, 
he returned to the city only to be abandoned by his cavalry, which 
went over in a body to the conqueror. He flew to the palace, deter- 
mined to wreak his vengeance upon the enchantress who had wrought 
his ruin. It was deserted — and word was brought him that, preferring 
honorable death to shameful captivity, she had closed her life in the 
tombs of her ancestors. The idea of her death completed his frenzy. 
He passed from the excess of rage to the most violent transports of 

Questions.— 31. What plan of escape did Cleopatra form? How was it frustrated? To 
•what did Cleopatra next turn her attention ? 32. For what did Antony beg? What waa 
the reply? What is said of the temple built by Cleopatra? Of the orders given to Cleo- 
patra's governors? What then did Antony do? What followed? 83: What is said about 
the challenge J 



b. c. :;0.] DEATH OF ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. 3H 

grief, and thought only of following her to the grave. Retiring to his 
chamber, and unclasping his coat of mail, he called upon his faithful 
servant, Eros, to strike the fatal blow. Eros drew his sword as if he 
designed to kill him; but, suddenly turning about, slew himself, and 
fell at his master's feet. Antony took up the sword, and plunging it 
into his own body, fell back upon his couch, mortally wounded. 
| 34. At that moment a messenger came to tell him that the queen 
was yet alive. When the name of Cleopatra was mentioned, he 
opened his eyes, and requested to be carried to her apartment. His 
servants conveyed him in their arms to the monument. Cleopatra 
would not suffer the door to be unbarred, but threw down cords from 
a lofty window, and assisted her women to draw him up. " Never 
was there a more moving sight. Antony, all bathed in blood, with 
death painted in his face, was drawn up in the air; turning his dying 
eyes, and extending his feeble hands to Cleopatra, as if to conjure her 
to receive his last breath ; whilst she, with features distorted, and arms 
strained, pulled the cords with her whole strength, the people below 
encouraging her with cries." She laid him on her bed, rent her 
clothes, beat her breast, tore her hair, and, wiping the blood from his 
wounds, called him her lord, her emperor, her husband, seeming to 
forget, in her sympathy for him, that she had any miseries of her own. 
Antony strove to comfort her, telling her that " he had conquered like 
a Roman, and it was only by a Roman that he had been conquered." 

35. Scarcely had he breathed his last, when a messenger arrived 
from Caesar, who had been informed of Antony's rash deed. She 
begged permission to bury Antony according to the customs of Egypt, 
which was not refused. A short time after, learning that Caesar 
designed to send her away in three days, she requested the melancholy 
satisfaction of visiting the grave of Antony once more. It was granted. 
" Alas! my Antony," said she, kneeling down by his tomb, "it is not 
long since with these hands I buried thee ; they were then free ; but 
thy Cleopatra is now a prisoner, reserved to adorn the triumph over 
thee. These are the last offerings, the last honors she can pay thee; 
for she is now to be conveyed to a distant country. Nothing could 
part us while we lived ; but in death we are to be divided. Thou, 
though a Roman, liest buried in Egypt; and I, an Egyptian, must be 
interred in Italy, the only favor I shall receive from thy country. Yet 
if the gods of Rome have power or mercy left (for surely those of 

Questions. — 34, 35, 36. Give an account of Antony's subsequent conduct and death. Of 
Cleopatra's. When did Cleopatra die ? Am. b. c. 80. How old was she at the time of her 
death? Ans. 39 years. 



312 EGYPT. [b. o. 30. 

Egypt have forsaken us), let them not suffer me to be led in living 
triumph to thy disgrace ! No ! hide me, hide me with thee in the 
grave ; for life, since thou hast left it, has been misery to me." The 
unhappy queen, having thus bewailed her misfortunes, returned to her 
monument, bathed, and sat down to a magnificent supper. Then, hav- 
ing called for a basket of figs which a peasant had lately brought, she 
wrote a letter to Caesar, and, ordering every one out of the monument 
except her two women, made fast the door. 

36. When Caesar opened the letter, and read " her last request to 
be buried with Antony," he suspected her intention, and sent his ser- 
vants to prevent her carrying it into effect. The messengers ran all 
the way, and, having broken open the door, entered. There lay the 
last of the royal race of the Ptolemies, on a golden couch, arrayed even 
in death with the greatest splendor. Iras, one of her maids, lay dead 
at her feet ; and Oharmion, hardly able to stand, was fixing the diadem 
upon the brow of her beloved queen. "Charmion," said the messen- 
gers of Caesar, "was this well done?" — " Perfectly well," said she, 
" and worthy a descendant of the kings of Egypt." Saying this, she 
also sunk down and expired. No mark of violence could be dis- 
covered upon the person of Cleopatra ; and as the track of a reptile 
was discerned on the sea-sands opposite her window, it was supposed 
that the basket of figs contained an asp, which, having stung her and 
her maids, was permitted to escape. In the tomb of Cleopatra was 
deposited the last sovereign of the Graeco-Egyptian dynasty of Lagidae, 
a race that had ruled Egypt 294 years. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAOB 

1. Whose son was Ptolemy said to be ? 298 

2. What name was consequently given to his dynasty ? 298 

3. When did he assume the title of king ? 298 

4. What account can you give of the battle of Ipsus ? 275 

5. What account can you give of Ptolemy I. ? 298 

6. Why was Ptolemy II. surnamed Philadelphus ? 298 

7. Why might he better have been called Philemon ? 298 

8. What additions did he make to the great library? 298 

9. What is said of the translation of the Bible ? 298, 299 

10. Of the watch-towers called Pharos ? 299 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 313 

PACK 

11. Why was the next Ptolemy surnamed Euergetes? 299 

12. What is stated of the constellation Berenice's Hair 299, 300 

13. Why was the fourth Ptolemy surnamed as he was ? 300 

14. Name the guilty acts of his reign 300 

15. What scene followed his death ? 300 

1 6. What territory did Egypt afterward lose ? 300, 30i 

17. What account can you give of Ptolemy VI. ? 301, 302 

18. Of Ptolemy VII. ? 302 

19. OfPhyscon? ; 297-302 

20. Who was Ptolemy Lathyrus ? 302 

21. What followed after his reign ? 303 

22. Give an account of Ptolemy Auletes 303, 304 

23. What children did he leave ? 304, 305 

24. Give an account of the early life of Cleopatra 304, 305 

25. Of the fate of Pompey 304, 393, 394 

26. Of Cassar in Egypt 304, 305 

27. By what means did Cleopatra gain power ? 304, 305 

28. What accomplishments did she possess ? 305 

29. Why did she make a visit to Tarsus ? 305, 401 

30. Give an account of that visit 305, 306 

31. What was the consequence to Antony? 306 

32. Give an account of the costly supper 306 

33. Of Fulvia and her doings 306, 307, 402 

34. Who was Octavius Cassar ? 306, 399 

35. Give the names of Antony's three wives 306, 307, 402 

36. Give an account of his Parthian expedition 307, 308 

37. Of his crowning of Cleopatra, &c 308 

38. Of the cause and preliminaries of the battle of Actium 308, 309 

39. Give an account of that battle 309, 402 

40. Of Cleopatra's attempt to escape to a remote country 309, 310 

41. Of her experiments with poisons 310, 312 

42. Of Antony's final failure, and his death 310, 311 

43. What is said of the monument erected by Cleopatra ? 310, 312 

14. Give an account of Cleopatra's death 311, 312 

45. What was the conduct of Cleopatra at the battle of Actium ? . . . 309 

46. How did Antony then behave himself? 309 

47. What account can you give of their subsequent course ? 309 

48. When did the death of Cleopatra occur? - Ans. B. c. 30. 

49. How many years had she reigned ? Ans, 22. 

50. How old was she at the time of her death ? Ans. 39 years. 

51. How many persons named Cleopatra have played a considerable 

part in mythology or history ? . . , Ans. No less than 9. 

52. Which was the most notorious? Ans. The one who married Antony. 

14 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

•♦• 

B.C. 

Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks ------ 1184 

Return of the Heracleidae 1104 

Commencement of the Olympiads 776 

Death of Codrus, last king of Athens ------ 1050 

Archons for life at Athens 1050-752 

Homer, Iliad, and Odyssey ------ about 850 

Hesiod, " Works and Days," " Theogony " - - not far from 800 

Legislation of Lycurgus — Sparta ------- 817 

First Messenian War - 743-734 

Decennial Archons at Athens ------- 752-714 

Macedonian Monarchy formed ------- TOO 

Archilochus, lyric poet about 700 

Nine Archons elected annually at Athens 684-594 

Second Messenian War --------- 685-668 

Tyrtaeus and Alcman, Spartan poets - about 650 

Thales, founder of the Ionic School of Philosophy - - - 640-550 

Draco gives laws to Athens -----.-- 624 

Alcaeus and Sappho, lyric poets 610-580 

Anaximander, successor to Thales - 610-547 

First Sacred War ---------- 600-591 

Legislation of Solon - - - 594 

Pythagoras, founder of the Pythagorean School of Philosophy - 580-510 

Reign of Pisistratus - - 560-527 

Anacreon, native of Teos ------ about 550 

.iEschylus, tragic poet 525-456 

Pindar, poet ----------- 518-442 

Hippias expelled from Athens 510 

Ionian revolt in Asia Minor 501 

Miletus taken, and the Ionian revolt subdued - 495 

Sophocles, QSdipus at Colonus - 495-405 

The expedition of Mardonius ---.----• 492 

Battle of Marathon ... 490 

Accession of Xerxes to the throne of Persia ----- 486 

Herodotus, first Historian in Greece 484-408 

Aristides banished from Athens by Ostracism ... - 483 

Hellenic Congress at the Isthmus - - - - - - 481 

Themistocles the leading man at Athens ----- 481 

Euripides, tragic poet - 480-406 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

B. C. 

Invasion of Greece by Xerxes—Battle of Salamis ... 480 

Anaxagoras, most illustrious of the Ionic School - - - 480-408 

Mardonius winters in Thessaly ------- 479 

Battle of Platsea 479 

The Greeks assume the offensive ------- 479 

Pausanias takes Byzantium - 478 

Leadership transferred from Pausanias to Aristides - 477 

Confederacy at Delos— Athenian Hegemony - 476 

Successes of Cimon - 475-463 

Thucydides, history of Peloponnesian War, from 431-411 - - 471-400 

Themistocles banished by Ostracism ------ 471 

The Battle at the Eurymedon ------- 466 

The Spartan Helots revolt - 464 

Cimon banished -- -- 461 

The Age of Pericles - - - - 461-429 

Lysias, Orator - - - 458 

Death of Cimon — End of the Persian Wars 449 

Defeat at Coroneia 447 

Athens reaches the height of her power ----- 456-447 

Thirty Years' Peace 445 

Zenophon, Anabasis, Hellenica, Cyropoadia, Memorabilia about 444-355 

Aristophanes, comic poet -------- 444-38 

Commencement of difficulties between Corinth and Corcyra - 436 

Potidaea revolts from Athens 432 

The Peloponnesian War between Sparta and Athens - - - 431-404 

" " conducted by Pericles - 431-429 

Death of Pericles— Plague at Athens ------ 429 

Plato, founder of the Academicians 428-347 

Cleon appointed to command in Thrace ----- 422 

Peace of Nicias ----- 421 

Battle of Mantinea - 418 

Sicilian Expedition ---------- 415 

Destruction of the Sicilian Expedition ------ 413 

Transfer of the War to Asia Minor ------ 412 

Alcibiades gains a victory at Cyzicus ------ 410 

" recovers Chalcedon and Byzantium ... - 408 

" after the Battle of Notium goes into Exile - - - 407 

Battle of iEgospotami — Spartan Hegemony 405 

Thirty Tyrants expelled by Thrasybulus 403 

Battle of Cunaxa— Retreat of the Ten Thousand - - - - 401 

War of Spartans with Persia 399-394 

Death of Socrates at the age of 70 - 399 

Corinthian War - - - - 394 

Battles of Corinth and Coronaea 394 






CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION". 

B. c. 

iEschines, rival of Demosthenes ------- 389-314 

Peace of Antalcidas - 387 

Demosthenes, celebrated orator ----- . 385-322 

Aristotle, founder of the Peripatetics 384-322 

War of Sparta against Thebes and Athens ----- 379-373 

Battle of Leuctra— The Spartans defeated by Epaminondas - 371 

Battle of Mantineia — Death of Epaminondas - 362 

Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedon - 359 

Social War 358-355 

Sacred War ----------- 357-346 

Epicurus, founder of the Epicureans - 342-270 

Battle of Chaeroneia — Macedonian Hegemony .... 338 

Accession of Alexander the Great ------- 336 

Battle of the Granicus --------- 334 

" Issus ; conquest of Tyre 333 

" Arbela - 331 

Demosthenes's Oration on the Crown ------ 330 

March to the Indus - 326 

The Voyage of Nearchus - - - 325-324 

Diogenes, the Cynic philosopher - - - - - - a. d. 323 

Death of Alexander at Babylon ------- 323 

The Egyptian kingdom of the " Ptolemies " - - - - - 323-30 

Euclid, Elements of Geometry 323-283 

First War among the Successors - 321 

Antipater sole Regent 320 

The Syrian kingdom of the Seleucidae 312-65 

The Battle of Ipsus - 301 

Zeno, founder of the Stoics about A. d. 263 

Death of Lysimachus — Conquest of Asia Minor - 281 

Invasion of Greece by the Gauls ------- 280 

Reign of Antiochus I., of Syria - - - - " - - - 280-261 

II. - - - 261-246 

Aratus, general of the Achaean League - 243 

Reign of Antiochus III. (the Great) 223-187 

Agis IV., king of Sparta - - - - - - - 241 

Battle of Sallasia — Cleomenes defeated 221 

Battle of Cynoscephalse — Philip defeated ----- 197 

Philopaemen, " the last of the Greeks," put to death - - 183 

Battle of Pydna — End of the Macedonian Monarchy - 168 

Destruction of Corinth by Mummius ------ 146 

Greece made a Roman province under the name of Achaia - 146 

Syria made a Roman province ------- 65 

Cleopatra, queen of Egypt -------- 51-30 

Egypt made a Roman province 30 



EOME. 

SECTION VII. 

1. Rome, commencing b. c. 75.3, and continuing till the year a. d. 476, 
occupies a period of 1229 years. Rome, in Nebuchadnezzar's Image, 
was the "iron kingdom;" and in Daniel's Vision, the "fourth beast, 
dreadful and terrible, with great iron teeth." By historians it is con- 
sidered the last of "the four universal monarchies" which bore rule 
in the earth before the Christian era. 

2. Buildings. — Rome was built by Romulus, upon the Palatine hill, 
but, in the days of its power, embraced also within its limits the 
Capitoline, Quirinal, Aventine, Coelian, Viminal, and Esquiline hills. 
On the top of the Capitoline hill was the capitol, or citadel of Rome. 
It was the highest part of the city, strongly fortified, and magnifi- 
cently ornamented. A descent of one hundred steps led to the forum, 
a large open space where the people held their assemblies. It was 
surrounded with arched porticoes, inclosing spacious markets where 
various commodities were sold. All the military roads terminated in 
this place, at a point in which was set up a gilded pillar called mil- 
larium aureum. Twenty aqueducts supplied the city with water, 
and eight bridges, supported on lofty arches, spanned the "yellow 
Tiber." The dwellings of the Romans were at first simple cottages 
thatched with straw. After the city was burned by the Gauls it was 
rebuilt in a more solid and commodious manner, and, after its second 
destruction by Nero, the houses were constructed with great attention 
to elegance and splendor, each dwelling having a portico in front, and 
an empty court, called a vestibule, before the gate. The gate was 
reached by ascending several steps. A slave in chains, armed with a 
staff, and attended by a large dog, performed the office of porter, and 
kept a fire, round which the images were placed, always burning. 

Rome. — Section VII. — Questions. — 1, 2. When was Koine founded? Who was its found- 
er? What period of time does its history embrace? When end? In what light is Home 
viewed by historians? What relation does it bear to Nebuchadnezzar's Image? Give a 
description of the building of Iiome. 3. Of the dwellings and furniture. 



M il ■■■MM ww» 






jMMMMMptfNMI 



b. c. 753.] ORDERS OF THE PEOPLE. 315 

3. They had no chimneys, and were in consequence much annoyed 
with smoke. At first, they made openings to admit the light ; as 
civilization increased, they used paper, linen cloth, and horn, to shut 
out the wind and rain ; and in the fourth century they arrived at the 
luxury of glass windows. A nobleman's villa, or country-seat, was a 
magnificent affair. The building was laid out in dining-rooms, parlors, 
bed-chambers, tennis-courts, baths, &c. ; and the grounds were taste- 
fully arranged with walks, terraces, parks, fish-ponds, garden, and all 
kinds of delightful groves. The furniture also followed the law of 
gradual improvement, from the simple four-legged square table, to 
the circular board inlaid with ivory, gold, and precious stones, till we 
read of one that cost a sum equal to $35,000. 

4. Inhabitants. — Without stopping to discuss any disputed points, 
it will only be necessary to say here, that the Roman citizens were 
separated into two great classes — Patricians and Plebeians, whose rela- 
tive positions will be more clearly denned in the following pages. 
Among the original population of the city, every man that could show 
a noble or free ancestry belonged to the patrician order, and had a 
share in the government of the state. Of the rest of the people, each 
man was attached, under the appellation of "client," to the head of 
some patrician family, whom he was obliged to serve, and who, in 
return, was bound to protect him. There was also the order of 
knights, consisting of young men chosen for cavalry, either from the 
patricians or plebeians. They must be eighteen years of age, and pos- 
sessed of a sum of money equal to $14,000. Their badges of distinc- 
tion were a gold ring, and a strip of purple sewed on the breast of fehe 
tunic. 

5. The Roman matrons themselves took charge of the children in 
their infantile years. Both boys and girls wore a loose robe, bordered 
with purple, called toga pretexta. They were sent to public schools, 
where the- greatest care was bestowed upon their style of reading and 
speaking. Children of rank were attended to school by a slave, who 
carried their books, writing materials, &c. Books were written on 
parchment, or on paper prepared from the leaves of the papyrus. 
Pens were made of a reed sharpened at the point. Ink was the black 
liquid emitted by the cuttle-fish. They wrote upon one side of the 
paper, and then rolled it round a staff, whence it was called a volume. 
Children learned to write with a metal pencil, stylus, upon tablets 
spread with wax. 

Questions.— A. Into how many and what classes were the citizens separated ? Who be- 
longed to the patrician order? Who the plebeian ? 5. What is said of the early education 
of the children ? How were books written ? 



316 ROME. [b. c. 753 

6. At the age of seventeen, the boy exchanged the toga prcte.rta 
for the toga virilis, or "manly gown," a loose, flowing robe, which 
covered the whole body. To wear this garment gracefully was a 
subject of intense study to the dandies of those days ; and even per- 
sons of a graver temperament made it a matter of serious considera- 
tion. A tunic was often worn under the toga, and in cold weather 
a cloak was idded. In early times all persons went bare-headed, but 
when luxury increased, a woman's toilet was called "her world." 
Every lady of fashion had at least one hair-dresser. The hair ivas 
anointed with the richest perfumery, curled with hot irons, adorned 
with gold and pearls, or bound with gay ribbons. 

7. Religiox. — The religion of the Romans was idolatry in the gross- 
est extreme. All the gods of the Greeks and Egyptians were duly 
worshiped ; and the virtues and affections of the mind, such as Faith, 
Hope, Concord, &c, were honored with altars and temples. The 
Romans also regarded with superstitious reverence the Penates, or 
powers of nature personified, and the Lares, or disembodied spirits of 
their ancestors. If the soul of the dead, in passing from the body, 
became a pure spirit, and hovered with the wing of love over the 
friends it had left behind, it was called " Lar ;" but if," by reason of 
crimes committed in life, it found in the grave no resting-place, it 
appeared to men as a phantom ; and its name, in that case, was Larva; 
but, as there was no way of ascertaining precisely the lot of the 
deceased, departed souls received the general appellation of Manes. 
Every household, however, claimed its protecting lares, and victims 
were sacrificed to them upon the domestic hearth. 

8. The priests were chosen from the most honorable men in the 
state. There were four pontiffs, called together the Collegium, whose 
business it was to see that the inferior priests did their duty. The 
Pontifex Maximus was the supreme judge in religious matters. 
Every year he drew up a short account of all public transactions ; 
and these Annals were exposed in an open place, for the inspection 
of the people. The Augurs, or soothsayers, made observations upon 
the heavens in the dead of night, explained omens, foretold future 
events, and exercised wonderful power over the superstitious by means 
of atmospheric phenomena. The Septemviri prepared the games, 
processions, and public feasts. The Quindecemviri had charge of the 
Sibylline books. The pontiffs, augurs, septemvirs, and quindecemvirs, 
were called " the four Colleges of Priests." The Sacred Fire, renewed 

Questions.— & What is said of the garments worn ? 7. Of the religion of the Iloiuana 
6. Of tie pontiffs ? 



b.c.753.] CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE. 317 

every year on the first of March from the rays of the sun, was watched 
by the Vestal Virgins, and whoever permitted it to go out was 
scourged by the pontifex maximus. If any vestal violated her vow 
she was buried alive. 

9. Marriage. — No young woman could marry without consent of 
her parents or guardians. When this was obtained, the auspices were 
taken, and a sacrifice offered, from which the gall of the victim waa 
carefully removed. The bride was dressed in a long white robe, bor- 
dered with a purple fringe; her hair was parted with a spear, and her 
head covered with a vail. In the house of the lady's father or nearest 
relative, in the presence of at least ten witnesses, the pontifex maxi- 
mus joined the pair in marriage, by causing them to repeat a set form 
of words, and taste a cake made of salt, water, and flour. In the 
evening the bride was taken, apparently by force, from the arms of 
her mother, and carried to the house of the bridegroom. Her maid- 
servants followed her with a distaff, a spindle, and wool. As she 
reached the door, her husband demanded who she was, to which she 
always answered, " Where thou art Caius, there shall I be Caia. n 
After binding the door-posts with woolen fillets, she gently stepped 
over the threshold, upon which she was presented with the keys of 
the house. 

10. After the parties had both touched fire and water, the bride- 
groom proceeded to give the feast. Nuptial songs were sung till mid- 
night, and the guests were dismissed with small presents. At supper 
the men reclined upon couches, and took their food without forks, 
the boys sitting at the feet of their elders. The table was consecrated 
by setting upon it the images of the Lares and salt-cellars. The feast 
was opened by pouring out libations to the gods, and throwing a por- 
tion of every article of food into the fire, as an offering to the guardians 
of the domestic hearth. The guests were entertained with music and 
dancing, plays and pantomimes, but the graver portion of the com- 
munity preferred reading. 

11. The Senate. — Senators were chosen from the patricians or 
knights, by the kings, the consuls, the military tribunes, and by the 
censors. The stated meetings of the senate were on the kalends, the 
beginning, and the ides, the middle, of every month. The power of 
this body varied with the varying politics of the republic. Under the 
regal government, the senators were the mere counselors of the king; 
during the palmy days of the Roman Commonwealth, they had the 

Questions. — 9, 10. Of the marriage customs? 11. How were the senators ihosen? Whnt 
is said of their meetings ? Of their powers and rights ? 



318 ROME. [b. c. 753. 

supreme authority ; and in the times of the emperors, being made the 
tools of power, they sunk into complete insignificance. Their consti- 
tutional rights gave them the direction of the treasury, the nomination 
of envoys, and the receiving of embassadors from foreign nations ; also 
the power of declaring war and decreeing peace, together with the 
granting of triumphs to victorious generals. 

12. Magistrates. — There were three classes of magistrates in Rome : 
1. The Qucestors, whose business it was to take care of the public 
revenue, to exact lines, to keep the military standards, and order the 
public funerals. 2. The JEdiles, whose duty it was to inspect markets, 
taverns, and all things sold in the forum ; to throw nuisances into the 
Tiber, and to examine the strength and structure of public buildings. 
3. The Prmtors, whose powers were expressed by do, dico, and 
addico. By " do," they gave the form of any writ ; by " dico," they 
pronounced sentence; and by "addico," they adjudged the goods of 
the debtor to the creditor. "When a cause was to be tried, the praetor 
took his seat in the forum, on a tribunal or stage, in a chair called 
curulc, with a sword and spear placed upright before him. The jury 
sat on lower seats, as did also the witnesses; clerks were employed to 
record the proceedings, and criers, to proclaim the hour. On court 
days, at nine o'clock in the morning, the praetor went to the forum, 
and there, being seated on the tribunal, ordered the crier to notify the 
people that it was the third hour, and whoever had any cause might 
bring it before him. 

13. Trials were much like those in our courts of law. In criminal 
cases judices were chosen, and after the cause had been heard, the 
praetor gave to each judex three tablets ; on one was written C, eon- 
demno ; on another A. absolvo ; and on the third N. L. non liquet, 
"I am not clear." Each judex threw which of these he thought 
proper into an urn. The praetor took them out, counted them, and 
decided the case according to this verdict. While the judkes were 
putting the ballots into the urn, the prisoner and his friends fell at 
their feet, wept, prayed, and used every method to excite compassion. 
Criminals were punished with Jines, bonds, blows, banishment, slavery, 
and death. None but the whole Roman people could pass sentence 
upon the life of a Roman. "I am a Roman citizen," stopped at once 
the proceedings of any tyrannical magistrate, and threw the accused 
upon the mercy of his fellow-citizens. The body of a malefactor was 
exposed for a time to public execration, and then thrown into the Tiber. 

Questions.— \2. How many classes of magistrates were there? Give their names and 
Juties. 13. How were criminals sentenced and punished with them? 



b. 0.753.] FUNERAL CEREMONIES. 319 

14. Occupations. — Agriculture was the principal occupation of the 
Romans, and was held in the highest esteem ; but the constant wars 
in which tne commonwealth was engaged made such large drafts upon 
the time of the citizens, that useful employments finally fell to the lot 
of slaves, while all the legitimate children of the republic became sol- 
diers. When the Romans thought themselves injured by any nation^ 
they sent one of the Feciales* to demand redress. If it was not im- 
mediately granted, 33 days were permitted to elapse, and then the 
priest went again to the confines of the nation, threw a bloody spear 
upon the ground, and formally declared war. Every citizen was con- 
sidered a soldier from the age of sixteen to that of forty- six; nor could 
any person hold an office in the city who had not served ten cam- 
paigns. The soldiers were formed into legions. Each legion was 
divided into ten cohorts, each cohort into three bands, each band into 
two centuries, or hundreds: to complete the legion, 300 horse were 
added. They fought with slings, spears, javelins, and swords. The 
standard of the legion displayed an eagle, with the letters " S. P. Q. 
R.," Senate, People, and Quirites of Rome. 

15. The load which a Roman soldier carried was enough to break down 
a common man. Provisions for fifteen days, a saw, a basket, a mattock, 
an ax, a hook, a leathern thong, a chain, a pot, &c, &c, amounting 
in all to 60 lbs. weight, besides his armor, which was not unfrequently 
made of brass plates, or rings, impenetrable to the spear. When a 
general, after consulting the auspices, had determined to attack the 
enemy, a red flag was hoisted on the point of a spear from the top of 
his tent. Then the trumpet sounded, the soldiers cried out " to arms," 
and, pulling up their standards, rushed on to battle. After a victory 
the general assembled his troops, and bestowed rewards on those who 
merited them. The pay of a soldier amounted only to about five cents 
a day besides his food, which he dressed himself. After a successful 
campaign the senate granted a triumph to the general, a festivity in 
which all the army were allowed to participate. 

16. Funekal Ceremonies. — The Romans, for the same reasons that 
influenced the Greeks, paid the greatest attention to funeral rites. 
When 'any one was dying, his nearest relative endeavored to catch 
his last breath with his mouth, under the impression that in that the 
soul took its departure. The eyes and mouth of the deceased were 
immediately closed, those present repeating his name several times, 

* A class of priests. 

Que*tions.—\±, 15 What is said of the occupations of the Romans? Of their equipments 
(..r righting? Of their fighting? Of their pay ? 16. Of their funenil ceremonies? 



320 KINGDOM OF ROME. [b. c. 753. 

and calling out Vale, "farewell." The corpse, having been bathed, 
and dressed in its richest robes, was laid on a couch in the vestibule, 
and a small coin for the fee of Charon was put into its hand. The 
funeral was solemnized in the night, with torches, the order of the 
procession being regulated by law. A mingled train of musicians, 
hired mourners, players, and buffoons, freedmen, friends, and relatives 
attended the body to the place of burning or burial. 

17. Fabulous History. — The first pages of Roman history, like 
those of the nations we have already considered, are but the intri- 
cate fables of a dark age, embellished by the fancy of the poet. 
At what point these mythic legends assume the form and substance 
of probability and truth we shall not attempt to decide. We strongly 
suspect that if the renowned Romulus were stripped of the drapery 
which the glory of Borne throws around him, he would appear in the 
form of a barbarous robber, or melt away into one of those fictitious 
heroes whose exploits serve only " to point a moral or adorn a tale." 
Virgil, the Homer of Rome, has given in his iEneid an account of the 
distinguished individual claimed by the Romans as their great pro- 
genitor. From this poem we learn that iEneas, son of Venus and 
Anchises, having escaped from the plains of Troy, after many romantic 
adventures landed in Italy, where the Latins then lived in all their 
savage simplicity. The chief of the Latins received him kindly, and 
gave him his daughter Lavinia in marriage. The descendants of 
Eneas and Lavinia were called kings of Alba, and continued to sit 
upon the throne of that country for a space of 400 years, which brings 
us to the century distinguished by the founding of that city, after- 
wards the acknowledged Queen of the World. 

18. b. c. 753. Rome Founded by Romulus. — The fourteenth de- 
scendant of ^Eneas left two sons, Numitor and Amulius. To the eldest 
the kingdom was bequeathed, while the youngest received the trea- 
sures remaining of those brought from Troy. Amulius, not satisfied 
with his portion, conspired against his brother, and succeeded in 
depriving him of his throne. To remove all apprehensions of being 
one day disturbed in his ill-gotten power, he put his brother's sons to 
death, and caused Rhea Silvia, their sister, to take the vow of a 
vestal. His precautions were vain. Rhea Silvia and (as it was 
affirmed) Mars, the god of war, were the parents of two boys, who 
were no sooner born than devoted by the tyrant to destruction. The 
mother was buried alive, and the cradle containing the helpless babes 

Question*.— VI. Of the fabulous history of Rome? IS. Who were Numitor and Amulius? 
Give the history of Numitor. Of Amulius. 



B. c. T53.] ROMULUS AND REMUS. 321 

was thrown into the Tiber; but the river having overflowed its banks, 
the frail bark drifted along the margin of the stream till it became 
entangled in the roots of a wild vine, at the foot of the Palatine hill. 
Faustulus, the king's shepherd, found the children, and carried them 
home to his wife, who named them Romulus and Remus, and brought 
them up as her own sons. 

19. The youths, ignorant of their real ancestry, grew to manhood 
among the wilds of Alba, sharing the toils and perils of their foster- 
father. The noble bearing and daring courage with which nature had 
endowed them, early gave them the pre-eminence in the little world 
to which they were confined, and they were soon honored as leaders 
of the youthful herdsmen who banded together to resist the aggres- 
sion of robbers or rivals. In a quarrel which arose between the ser- 
vants of Amulius and Numitor, Remus was taken prisoner and carried 
before his grandfather. While Numitor hesitated what punishment 
to inflict, Faustulus and Romulus hastened to the place of trial, and 
stopped all further proceedings by revealing the real origin of the 
delinquent. The aged Numitor was rejoiced to believe that the two 
noble youths who stood before him were the destined avengers of his 
wrongs, and hastily acquiesced in their proposal to expel Amulius, and 
restore the throne of Alba to its rightful possessor. Romulus, fol- 
lowed by the young men who had so long acknowledged him their 
leader, besieged the castle of Amulius, and in the confusion that 
ensued the usurper was slain. 

20. Numitor being thus reinstated in the sovereignty of Alba, the 
two brothers requested permission to build a city of their own, upon 
the spot where their lives had been so miraculously preserved. The 
shepherds who had hitherto assisted them joined in this enterprise 
with alacrity, and soon men enough were collected to commence the 
work. A dispute then arose between the brothers about the precise 
location of the future city, and finally it was agreed to refer the mat- 
ter to an augury from the flight of birds. Remus took his station upon 
Mount Aventine, and Romulus sat down upon the Palatine hill. At 
sunrise Remus saw six vultures, and soon after Romulus saw ticelve. 
The partisans of Remus contended for him, as having seen the first 
good omen, while the followers of Romulus insisted that his omen was 
most complete. Romulus prevailed ; and proceeded to mark out the 
boundaries of the intended city. 

Questions.— 18, 19, 20. Of Remus. Of Romulus. What circumstance made Romulus an<i 
Remus acquainted with their origin? What late awaited the usurper and murderer of 
Amulius ? What dispute is mentioned ? How was it decided ? 
14* 



322 KINGDOM OF ROME. [b. c. 753. 

21. The City. — Persons skilled in sacred mysteries were called tc 
direct as to the manner in which every thing should be done. First, a 
circular ditch was dug, into which each deputy cast a handful of earth 
which he had brought from his own country. About three furlongs 
from this point the city walls were marked out in a square, including 
the Palatine hill, and a portion of land at its base. Romulus, having 
fitted a brazen plowshare to a plow, drew a furrow around the boun- 
daries, his attendants following, and carefully turning every clod 
inwards. Four times he took up the plow and carried it a short dis- 
tance, and in these places were built the gates.* This took place on 
the 21st of April, b. o. 753. While the wall was beginning to rise 
above the surface, Remus leaped over it, saying contemptuously, 
"Shall such a wall as this keep your city?-' Upon which Romulus 
struck him dead with the implement he had in his hand, exclaiming, 
"So perish whosoever shall hereafter overleap these ramparts." The 
work then went on without interruption ; and in a short time the 
walls were raised to a suitable height, and a thousand thatched cot- 
tages were built. 

22. To increase as rapidly as possible the population of his new city, 
Romulus set apart a grove as a sanctuary for malefactors and run-away 
slaves ; " every one that was in distress, and every one that was in 
debt," flocked thither also ; those who were pleased with novelty, and 
those who were fond of adventure, contributed likewise to the num- 
ber of inhabitants; so that Romulus soon found himself at the head 
of a people willing to drop all former distinctions for the yet untar- 
nished appellation of Romans. To introduce order and sobriety among 
such a mixed multitude, some kind of government was necessary. 
Accordingly, Romulus was unanimously elected chief of their religion, 
sovereign magistrate of Rome, and general of the army. He was pre- 
ceded wherever he went by twelve lictors, armed with axes tied up in 
bundles of rods. One hundred old men were selected to transact the 
business of the state. They were called fathers, and their descend- 
ants, patricians. By decrees of the senate, and authority of the 
people, laws were made for the regulation of public affairs, and the 
interests of religion were carefully guarded. 

23. Union with the Sabines. — It will be readily imagined that the 
character and prospects of the individuals composing the body politic 

* Called portes, from porter, to carry. 

Questions. — 21. Give the particulars of the beginning of the city. Where were the gates 
placed? When was that done? How did Remus lose his life? 22. How was the city 
peopled ? In what manner did Romulus govern his city ? From what is the word patrician 
derived? 'Ann. Pater, meaning father. 



b. c. 153.] UNION WITH THE SABINES. 323 

were not such as to invite the alliance of the surrounding tribes; the 
proposals of marriage which the Roman youth made to several aristo- 
cratic neighbors were rejected with scorn, and after striving in vain 
to make their persons and their homes more agreeable to the fair 
daughters of the Sabines, it was decided, in the fourth month after the 
building of the city, to obtain by force what was denied to entreaty. 
Public shows and games were proclaimed, and persons came from all 
parts, bringing their wives and children to witness the prowess of the 
competitors. While every eye was intent upon the scene, the Roman 
youth rushed in among the crowd, and, seizing the most beautiful girls 
they could find, carried them off. The Sabines remonstrated in vain. 
The Romans, having secured their wives, treated them with the utmost 
kindness and attention ; and the women, won by the unexpected ten- 
derness of their captors, consented to " forsake their fathers and 
mothers and cleave unto their husbands." 

24. The fathers and mothers were not, however, so easily satisfied. 
As the Romans obstinately refused to restore their daughters, Tatius, 
the Sabine king, led an army of 25,000 men to the very gates of Rome. 
The Romans, unable to meet so strong an army in the field, having 
placed their flocks upon the Capitoline hill, and strongly fortified it, 
withdrew within their walls. Tarpeia, daughter of the commander 
of that fortress, going to a neighboring spring for water, was seized by 
the Sabines, and entreated to betray one of the gates to them. She 
agreed to do so for what the soldiers wore upon their arms, meaning 
their bracelets; but no sooner had she opened the gate than they 
threw their bucklers upon her, and crushed her to death. From her 
the cliff of the Capitoline hill was called the Tarpeian rock. The 
Romans rushed out of their city to regain possession of this important 
point, and soon a fierce engagement ensued in the valley between the 
Capitoline and Quirinal hills. 

25. In the midst of the conflict, the attention of the combatants was 
diverted by loud cries and lamentations. "While they paused in aston- 
ishment, the Sabine women rushed in between the two armies, entreat- 
ing their husbands to spare their fathers, and their fathers to spare 
their husbands. The fierce warriors listened, and suffered their weapons 
to fall from their hands. Affection finally mastered resentment, and by 
the mediation of these amiable females a peace was concluded, on con- 
dition that the two nations should be united in one, and Romulus and 
Tatius reign jointly in Rome. The new citizens were called Quirites, 

Questions. — 23. Describe the manner in which the Romans secured wives for themselves. 
24, 25. Who was the Sabine king? In what expedition was he engaged? Give an account 
of the expedition and its results. 



324 KINGDOM OF ROME. [b. c. 713 

whence the initial " Q." in the royal standard. One hundred Sabines 
were added to the senate, and the number of men in the legion was 
also doubled. Thus every event, however adverse, served to advance 
the interests of the new city, and Romulus had the happiness of seeing 
a hostile army converted into peaceful citizens in the course of a few 
hours. 

26. The death of Tatius, about five years after, left Romulus 
again sole monarch of Rome. He conquered Fidenae, and, engaging 
in a war with the Veians, compelled them to give up their salt-pits 
near the Tiber. One day, while he was reviewing his army, a dread- 
ful thunder-storm arose. The people fled in different directions to 
seek for shelter, and when the tempest passed over Romulus was no- 
where to be found. It was conjectured that he had been carried to 
heaven by his father, the god Mars, a supposition that was confirmed 
by one Proculus, who declared that as he was returning by night from 
Alba to Rome, Romulus appeared to him in a form of more than mor- 
tal majesty, and bade him tell the Romans u that Rome was destined 
to be the chief city of the world ; that human power should never be 
able to withstand her people ; and that he himself would be their 
guardian god Quirinus." 

27. u. o.* 37.— b. o. 716. After the death of Romulus, the senate 
undertook to govern the city by each member's acting the part of king 
for five days in succession. The people submitted to this changing 
government for a year, till, finding in it the authority of a monarch 
without his paternal care, they insisted upon the election of a king. 
They accordingly fixed upon Numa Pompilius, a citizen of Cures, who, 
though married to the daughter of Tatius, had always lived in retire- 
ment. Numa was born the very day Rome was founded, and was 
consequently in his fortieth year when embassadors came to beg his 
acceptance of the crown. He left the sacred groves, where he had 
spent the best part of his life, with unfeigned reluctance, and prefaced 
his departure with many sacrifices. The senate and people met him 
on the way, and the women welcomed him into the city with bles- 
sings and shouts of joy. Attended by the priests and augurs, he went 

* Urba Co7idita, " after the building of the city." 

Questions.— lb. How did the initial " Q." get into the royal standard ? What further is 
stated of the Sabines? 26. What event made llomulus sole monarch of Rome a second 
time ? What successes in war did he have ? What was the fabled account of the death of 
Romulus? What of the prophecy ? 27. How was Rome governed during the next year? 
What did the people desire? Who was chosen to wear the crown? How old then was 
Numa? What account can you give of his life up to that time? How was Numa met at 
Rome? What were the qualifications for the throne? 



B. c. 673.] TULLIUS HOSTILIUS. 325 

to the top of the Tarpeian rock, where the chief augur laid his hand 
lpon his head, and, turning his face to the south, waited in silence till 
several birds flew by, on his right hand. Then being invested with the 
royal robe, Numa went down to the people and was hailed as their king. 

28. No monarch could have been more suitable than Numa, for a 
multitude whose opinions, tastes, and habits were unsettled. The 
inhabitants of various petty states, lately subdued and but ill united, 
needed a master who could soften their fierce dispositions, and intro- 
duce among them the love of religion and virtue. Numa had super- 
stition enough to awaken their reverence, and policy enough to turn 
his power to good account. By the instruction of the goddess Egeria, 
he founded the whole system of the Roman religion, he increased the 
number of augurs, regulated the duties of the pontiffs, and instituted 
several new orders of priests. 

29. Tullius. — Angus. — Tarquin. — b. o. 700. Numa also divided 
among his subjects the lands which Romulus had conquered in war, 
and set landmarks, consecrated to the god Terminus, upon every por- 
tion. He abolished the distinction between Romans and Sabines, by 
dividing the artisans according to their trades, and compelling all 
those of the same profession to dwell together. He built the temple 
of Janus, to be shut in the time of peace, and open in time of war ; 
and so profound was the quiet he had produced, that though this templo 
was erected in the first year of his reign, it continued shut till his 
death, which happened in his 83d year. 

30. b. c. 673. Tullius Hostilius. — After the death of Numa, 
the senate again tried the experiment of carrying on the government 
themselves, till at length Tullius Hostilius, a man of Latin ex- 
traction, was elected monarch. His talents and inclinations differed 
entirely from those of his predecessor. He was more inclined to war 
than even Romulus had been, and only waited a plausible pretext for 
seizing upon the territories of his neighbors. An incursion of the 
Alban shepherds gave him an opportunity to demand redress, and he 
took care to do it in such a manner as to insure a refusal. War 
being thus made necessary, the two armies were drawn out in battle 
array, five miles from Rome. Just as they were about to engage, the 
Alban general proposed that the matter should be referred to three 
champions, chosen from each side. 

Questions.— 28. Why was the selection of Numa for king a good one? 29. What policy 
di»! Numa adopt in relation to conquered lands, landmarks, &c. ? What distinction did 
he abolish? What temple found? In what respects was he a good king? 30. Who 
succeeded Numa? What was the character of Tullius Hostilius? What pretext did ha 
find to gratify his warlike propensity ? Where was Alba ? (See map No. 4.) 



326 KINGDOM OF ROME. [b. c. 640. 

31. The offer was accepted. Three Horatii were chosen for the 
"Romans, and three Curatii for the Albans. The mother of the Horatii 
was sister to the mother of the Curatii ; and all six of the young men 
were distinguished for courage, strength, and activity. When every 
thing was arranged, the champions were led forth amid encouraging 
shouts, and then both sides rested upon their arms, and gazed with 
breathless anxiety upon the scene. Victory at first inclined to the 
Albans. Two of the Horatii lay dead upon the field, and the third 
seemed to fly, while the Curatii, all wounded, feebly pursued him. 
The Romans were ready to give up in despair, when suddenly Hora- 
tius, having separated his antagonists, turned and slew them, one after 
another, sacrificing, as he said, " two to the manes of his brothers," and 
offering "the third to his country's honor." The Albans threw down 
their arms and submitted to the Romans ; and Horatius, having 
stripped his cousins of their armor, returned in triumph to Rome. 

32. Not long after, the Albans having engaged in a conspiracy 
against the Romans, a decree was passed that Alba should be razed to 
the ground, and the whole Alban people removed to Rome. The 
walls of the city and every human habitation were totally demolished, 
and new dwellings assigned to the houseless tribe, upon the Celian 
hill. Thus another nation was incorporated within the limits of the 
Roman state. Hostilius contributed to the comfort of the citizens by 
inclosing an open space for the meetings of the Comitia, or assembly 
of the people, and the building of a senate-house. Toward the close 
of his reign his mind was affected with superstitious fears, and to 
avert the anger of the gods, he had recourse to the sacred rites for- 
merly practiced by Numa. His invocations had, however, a contrary 
effect. His palace was struck by lightning, and himself, with all his 
family, perished in the flames. 

33. b. c. 640. Ancus Maetius.— After an interregnum, as in the 
former case, Ancus Martius, grandson of Numa, was elected king. 
He strove to imitate the virtues of his grandfather, and carry out 
his maxims of government. He increased the number of his sub- 
jects, by bringing several thousand Latins to Rome, and settliug them 
on Mount Aventine. He constructed the first bridge over the Tiber ; he 
extended his dominions on both sides of the river to the seacoast, and 
built the harbor of Ostia, thus securing the trade of the Tiber and the 
salt-pits adjacent. He encouraged strangers to settle in the city ; and 

Questions, — 31. Recite the story of the champions. Which way was Alba from Rome? 
(See map No. 4.) 32. Give the further history of Alba. What good things did Hostilius do 
for Rome? Give the closing history of him. 33. Who succeeded Hostilius? What bene- 
fits did Ancus Martius ssek for his country ? What did he accomplish ? 



b. c. GIG.] LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS. 327 

one of these, an opulent Greek, having gained his peculiar favor, was 
appointed guardian of his children. 

34. b. c. 616. Lucius Ta.rquinius Peiscus. — A merchant of Corinth, 
having amassed considerable wealth in trade, emigrated to Tarqmnia, 
a city of Italy. Dying, he left all his wealth to his only son, 
Lucius. This Lucius married Tanaquil, a lady of high birth in 
Tarquinia, and was by her persuaded to remove to Rome, then 
the center of attraction for all adventurers. As they approached tho 
city, an eagle stooping from above took off his hat, and, flying round 
his chariot for some time, with much noise put it on again. This his 
wife interpreted as a presage that he should one day wear the crown, 
and they both spared no pains to bring about the accomplishment of 
the prophecy. This was the Greek who paid his court so effectually 
to Ancus as to be appointed guardian of his children. When tho 
Romans met to elect a new king, he made a set speech to them, urged 
the friendship he felt for them, and the fortune he had expended in 
their service. The people acknowledged the justice of his claims, and 
he was soon invested with the royal robes. To reward his partisans, 
who were chiefly plebeians, he added 100 of them to the senate, thus 
making that body 300. 

35. He laid the foundations of the great circus, or amphitheater, 
where gladiatorial shows were afterwards exhibited. The Latin states 
having made incursions upon his territories, he engaged in a war with 
them, during which he took and plundered nine towns. Tarquin also 
overcame the Etruscans in several engagements, and received from 
them a golden crown, an ivory throne and scepter, a purple tunic, 
and a robe embroidered with gold. Such were the military exploits 
ascribed to Tarquin ; but his lasting fame was inlaid with the very 
foundations of the city. The forum, with its rows of shops and orna- 
mental porticoes, was marked out by his order, and a wall around the 
city, of massy stones, commenced. 

36. He built the cloaca maxima, or great sewers, to drain off the 
water from between the Palatine and Oapitoline hills. " This vast 
drain was constructed of huge blocks of hewn stone, triply arched, 
and of such dimensions that a barge could float along in it beneath the 
very streets of the city. Earthquakes have shaken the city and the 
adjacent hills, but the cloaca maxima remains to this day unimpaired, 
an enduring monument of the power and skill of the people and the 

Questions.— 34, 35, 36. Who was Lucius Tarquinius Priscus? Eelaf.e the story of the 
eaule. Why did that event prove important? How did Tarquin reward his partisans? In 
what successful wars did he engage? What did his military exploits gain for him and 
Eomo ? What monuments of his power and skill remain ? 



KINGDOM OF ROME. [b. c. 578 

king by whom it was constructed/' The augurs, under the patronage 
of Tanaquil, came into great reputation ; and such was the ascendency 
which they finally gained over the mind of Tarquin, that no battle was 
fought, no army levied, no assembly dismissed, nor peace proclaimed, 
without due reference to the chirping and flying of birds. 

37. Servitts. — Tarquin II. — Consuls.— b. c. 60O. Tarquin, in 
the Sabine war, had vowed to build a temple to the three great deities, 
Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and preparations were going forward for 
this magnificent work when the hand of the assassin dismissed him 
from all public employments. The sons of Ancus Martius, impatient 
to enjoy a throne which Tarquin had made so desirable, hired two 
countrymen to murder the king. The ruffians entered the palace as if 
to bring a cause before Tarquin, and struck him dead with an ax. The 
lictors immediately seized them, and put them to death ; but the sons 
of Ancus made their escape. The rumor of the death of Tarquin filled 
the city with confusion. The citizens ran in crowds to the palace to 
learn the truth of the report. Tanaquil, who had her own purpose to 
serve, assured them that her husband was only stunned by the blow, 
and that he had deputed the government to his son-in-law, Servius 
Tullius, till his recovery. 

38. b.c. 578. Servius Tullius. — Servius comes before us arrayed 
in the garb of fable, like his predecessors. He was said to have been 
the son of a bond-woman. While an infant in the cradle a lambent 
flame played around his head, which, as an omen of his future great- 
ness, secured for him the patronage of Tanaquil. Receiving him into 
her family, she gave him an education suited to the high station he 
was destined to fill, and married him to her daughter. Upon the 
death of Tarquin he issued from the palace, clothed with the ensigns 
of power, and proceeded to administer the government, as he said, by 
directions of his father-in-law. When he had thus made good his 
party, the body of the murdered monarch was brought out and buried, 
and Servius was proclaimed king. 

39. The government of Servius Tullius paved the way for the repub- 
lic. He divided the lands among the citizens, and built dwellings for 
the poor ; he was the friend of the people, and chose his habitation in 
the plebeian quarter of the city. He ordained that once in five years 
every man should resort to the Campus Martius,* clad in complete 

* A large plain without the walls of the city, where the Roman youth performed their 
gymnastic exercises. It is the principal situation of modern Rome. 

Questions. — 37. What vow had Tarquin made? What prevented its accomplishment? 
How d ; d Servius secure the throne? 33. Relate the fable, also the history of Servius until 
he was crowned king. :JI*. In what ways did he show himself to be a friend of the people ? 



B.C. 534.] TARQUIN THE PROUD. 309 

armor, and there make oath to an exact account of his family and for- 
tune. This census was closed by a feast, called a lustrum. Servius 
steadily carried forward the building of the Capitol, begun by his pre 
decessor ; and inclosed the Viminal and Esquiline hills also within 
walls of the city. This king is said to have engaged in war with th 
of the neighboring states, which continued twenty years, and resul 
in an acknowledgment of the supremacy of Rome. 

40. To secure the crown to his family, Servius, it is related, 
married his two daughters to the two brothers of his wife, Aruns and 
Tarquin; and as both the women and men differed greatly in disposi- 
tion, he sought to correct their tempers by marrying the imperious 
Tullia to the gentle Aruns, and the ambitious Tarquin to her milder 
sister. This very measure defeated his design. The imperious and 
ambitious broke through the feeble bonds which their meek com- 
panions imposed, and, having both murdered their consorts, were soon 
united to each other. The first crime made way for the second, and 
the second was but a preparation for the third. Tarquin and Tullia 
saw a crown before them, and no remorse of patriotism or filial affec- 
tion could prevent their grasping it. They encouraged every murmur 
of discontent which reached their ears, and made a strong party 
among the patricians by spreading a rumor that Servius intended to 
abolish the regal form of government, and give to the plebeians equal 
weight in the commonwealth with the more aristocratic part of the 
community. 

41. Having thus every thing prepared, Tarquin went to the senate- 
house, seated himself on the royal chair, and summoned the senators 
to meet king Tarquinius. While he was speaking Servius entered, 
and, accusing Tarquin of treason, offered to push him from his seat ; 
but the usurper seized the old man, dragged him to the door, and 
threw him down the steps. A body of assassins followed the wounded 
king as he was feebly making his way to the palace, and, having put 
an end to his life, left his body bleeding and mangled in the street. 
Tullia, meanwhile, mounted her chariot and drove to the senate-house. 
After saluting her guilty husband as king, she set out on her return, 
and the charioteer, by her direction, drove over the body of the mur- 
dered Servius. The blood of her father stained her chariot wheels, 
and sprinkled the robe in which she had arrayed herself to be hailea 
a queen. 

42. b. c. 533. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. — Tarquin the Proud, 

Questions.— 40, 41. By what means did Servius endeavor to perpetuate the crown in hia 
own family ? Describe the tragedy that followed the ambitious father's folly. 42. What 
character is given of Tarquin the Proud ? 



330 KINGDOM OP ROME. [b. c. 509 

having thus seized upon the throne as a right, refused to snbmit to a 
vote of the people, and every other act of his administration showed 
the same disposition to make himself absolute, in defiance of all law or 
religion. He surrounded himself with a body-guard, and either ban- 
ished or put to death all whom attachment to the late king or love of 
justice inclined to criticise his measures. The Latins and the Volscii 
felt the power of Rome, and every fresh acquisition made Tarquin 
more imperious and tyrannical. The capitol, upon which his prede- 
cessors had labored so diligently, employed him four years ; and an 
occurrence w T hich he reported contributed not a little to the zeal with 
which the people wrought in the work. 

43. One day a Sibyl* came to the palace of Tarquin with nine 
books, which she said were of her own composing, but she asked so 
high a price for the mysterious volumes that Tarquin refused to pur- 
chase them. She went away, burned three of them, and returned, 
demanding the same price for the remaining six. Again the king 
refused to buy, and again she went away and burned three of her 
precious works; but when she came into his presence the third time, 
and insisted upon his taking the three books, without any abatement 
of price, his curiosity was so excited that he sent for the augurs. By 
their advice the volumes were purchased, and deposited in stone 
chests, in the vault of the new capitol. Proper persons, called the 
quindecemviri, were appointed to take charge of them ; and thus 
the sibylline leaves became the oracles of the nation. Tarquin also 
finished the cloaca maxima, and reduced the city of Gabii by the 
stratagemt of his son Sextus. 

44. The tyrant father and dissolute son had filled Rome with 
mourning ; and Sextus, having crowned his enormities by violating the 
honor of a noble Roman lady, precipitated the doom which had so 
long been hanging over the devoted house of Tarquinii. This lady 
was Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, a descendant of the first Tarquin. 

* The Sibyllae were certain females who lived in different parts of the world, and were 
thought to possess the power of foretelling future events. 

t The stratagem was this. Sextus counterfeited desertion, and was kindly received at 
Gabii. Being apparently successful in his engagements with the Romans, the simple 
Gabians made him general of their army. He then sent to his father for instructions. Tar- 
quin made the messenger no answer, but, taking him into the garden, silently cut down the 
tallest poppies. Sextus took the hint; and, under various pretexts, put to death or ban- 
ished the most distinguished Gabians. till the people, finding themselves completely in his 
hands, submitted to his father without striking a blow. 

Questions. — 42. To what regulations did he refuse to submit? How did he treat the 
friends of the murdered king ? 43. Give the story of the Sibylline books. 44. Kelate lie 
circumstances preceding the banishment of Tarquin. 



B.C. 509.] EXPULSION OF TARQUIN. 331 

Unable to pardon herself for the crime of another, she sent for her 
husband and father, entreating them to come to her immediately, as 
an indelible disgrace had befallen the family. They obeyed her sum- 
mons, bringing with them Valerius, a kinsman, and Junius Brntus, 
whose father Tarquin had put to death. In brief terms she related 
what had befallen her, and, having required a pledge that they would 
avenge her injuries, she drew a knife from under her robe and stabbed 
herself to the heart. 

45. While the rest stood motionless and silent with grief and con- 
sternation, Brutus, the pretended idiot, drew the bloody poniard from 
the reeking wound, and, holding it up to the assembly, exclaimed: 
"I swear by this blood, which was once so pure, and which nothing 
but the detestable villainy of Tarquin could have polluted, that I will 
pursue Lucius Tarquinius the Proud, his wicked wife, and their chil- 
dren, with fire and sword ; nor will I suffer any of that family, or any 
other whatsoever, to reign at Rome. Ye gods ! I call ye to witness 
thie my oath." Then, presenting the dagger to Oollatinus, Lucretius, 
Valerius, and the rest of the company, he engaged them to take the 
same oath. That the man who had so long been kept as an idiot in 
the king's house, to make sport for his children, should thus stand 
forth the friend of justice and the assertor of Roman liberty, was a 
miracle that roused the feelings of the people no less than the wrongs 
of the virtuous Lucretia. 

46. The citizens came together in crowds, the gates of the city were 
shut, and the senate decreed that Tarquin and his family should be 
forever banished from Rome, and that to plead for, or attempt his 
return, shovld be a capital crime. Tarquin, who was absent with the 
army, hearing of these commotions, hastened to Rome without delay. 
He found the gates barred against him, and the walls filled with armed 
men. Disappointed and enraged, he turned again to join his army ; 
but Brutus, taking another route, had reached the camp before him, 
acquainted the soldiers with what had taken place, and enlisted their 
feelings in the cause of justice. Thus this proud monarch, who had 
reigned 25 years, being expelled from his kingdom, was forced to take 
refuge in a little city of Etruria, and thus ended, with him, the regal 
state of Rome, after it had continued 245 years. 

47. Consuls.— The regal power being thus overthrown, Rome be- 
came a republic, and two magistrates called Consuls were annually 

Questions.— 45, 46. What course did Brutus take ? How far was he successful ? How 
'ong did the regal state of Rome continue ? 47. After the overthrow of regal power what 
did Rome become? By whom were the affairs of government administered? 



332 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [u. c. 509. 

chosen to administer the affairs of government. No one could be con- 
sul who had not before been quaestor, aedile, and praetor. The consuls 
had all the badges of kings, except the crown ; every one went out of 
the way, uncovered his head, dismounted from his horse, or rose up 
when these officers passed. Brutus and Oollatinus were chosen first 
consuls of Rome. Hardly was this new order of things established, 
when embassadors came from Tarquin to say that he would peaceably 
relinquish the kingdom if the Romans would send him his treasures 
and effects. These embassadors had another object in view, which 
they proceeded to unfold while the senate debated upon Tarquin's 
proposition. 

48. They took up their residence in the house of the Aquilii, neph- 
ews of Collatinus, and by their aid collecting such young men as had 
been brought up in idle attendance upon the king, formed a conspiracy 
to restore monarchy. Even the sons of Brutus, displeased with the 
stern frugality of their father, entered into the scheme, and all toge- 
ther bound themselves not to betray the plot, by the horrid ceremoiTy 
of drinking the blood of a man sacrificed for the purpose. A slave, 
however, discovered the whole affair, and hastened to the upright 
Valerius with the startling intelligence. Valerius, with a sufficient 
force, proceeded immediately to the place, found the papers, and, seiz- 
ing the conspirators, twisted their gowns about their necks, and drag- 
ged them into the forum. The consuls, hearing the tumult, repaired 
to the spot, and silence being gained, the accusation was entered and 
proved. The young men pleaded nothing for themselves, but with 
conscious guilt awaited their sentence in silent agony. 

49. A melancholy stillness reigned ; the tears of Oollatinus and the 
irrepressible emotions of Valerius stimulated some of the most com- 
passionate to speak of banishment ; but Brutus alone, seeming to have 
lost all the softness of humanity, called upon each of his sons: "You, 
Titus, and you, Tiberius, why do you not make your defense against 
this charge?" This question he repeated three times, in a stern voice, 
but receiving no answer, he turned to the lictors, and saying, " Yours 
is the part that remains/' resumed his seat, and with an air of deter- 
mined majesty beheld his sons stripped, scourged, and beheaded. 
Collatinus, not equally firm, was just going to grant his nephews a 
reprieve, when Valerius interposed, and the people voted that they 
should receive the punishment they so well merited. This conduct 

Questions. — 47, 48, 49. What qualifications were required for the office of consul ? What 
badges of distinction belonged to them? Who were the first consuls? What embassadors 
were sent from Tarquin ? "What proved to be the real object of these embassadoi s ? Relate 
the story of the conspiracy, m ith its heart-rending consequences. 



B.C. 500.] WAR WITH THE LATINS. 333 

of Collatinus rendered him suspected by the citizens ; he was deposed 
from the consulship and banished, and \ alerius, surnamed Publicola, 
" the people's most respectful friend," was elected in his room. 

50. Tarquin now enlisted the Veians, and advanced with a consider- 
able army toward Rome. Valerius Publicola and Brutus, having made 
suitable preparations, went out to meet him on the Roman borders. 
Aruns, son of Tarquin, seeing his despised playfellow at the head of 
the Roman armies, spurred on to meet him ; and Brutus, equally 
enraged, rode out of the ranks, and engaged with him in single com- 
bat. Nerved by the deadliest hate, neither thought of defending him- 
self, and both fell dead upon the field. The battle, whose onset was 
so dreadful, had not a milder conclusion. The carnage was terrible, 
and continued till the armies were separated by a storm. On number- 
ing the dead, it was found the Veians had lost one man more than the 
Romans, and they accordingly confessed defeat. Tarquin fled to Clu- 
sium, and engaged Porsenna, one of the most powerful princes of Italy, 
to undertake his cause. By his army the Roman commonwealth was 
reduced to the very brink of destruction. The consuls were wounded 
in the field, and forced to retire. 

51. Rome was besieged, and the inhabitants were wasting under the 
influence of famine, when the city was saved by an act of heroism 
superior to any before related. A young man named Mutius, dis- 
guised like an Etrurian peasant, entered the camp of Porsenna and 
slew the king's secretary, mistaking him for the king himself. Upon 
his arrest he declared unreservedly who he was, informed the king of 
his country and design, and added, that three hundred Roman youth 
were equally resolved to destroy their enemy, or perish in the attempt; 
then, thrusting his hand into a fire burning upon an altar, he held it 
there with the utmost composure until it dropped off, saying: "You 
see the Romans know how to suffer, as well as how to act." Por- 
senna, charmed with his noble spirit, ordered him to be safely con- 
ducted back to Rome, and offered the besieged honorable conditions 
of peace.* 

52. Dictators. — Tribunes. — Decemvirs. — b. c. 500. Tarquin, 

* It is said that the Romans actually submitted, and only recovered their city and terri- 
tory on condition of giving up the use of iron, except for implements for husbandry. 

Questions. — 49. Who was chosen consul in place of Collatinus ? 50. What steps were 
then taken by Tarquin? Where did the armies meet? How did the noble Brutus fall? 
How did the battle terminate ? By whose assistance did Tarquin once more wage destruc- 
tive war upon Rome ? 51. During the siege, what was the condition of the Romans? Give 
the story of the heroic young man, Mutiup How did his conduct affect the mind of Por- 
6euna? Who was Porsenna? Which way from Rome was Clusium * (See map No. 4.) 



334 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 494 

though often disappointed, was still unsubdued. He stirred up the 
Latins to hostilities, united twenty-four towns in a confederacy, and 
secretly worked by his agents within the very walls of Rome. The 
Romans under their kings had only two ways of subsisting, by agri- 
culture and by plunder. After the extinction of royalty, the senators 
appropriated the conquered lands to themselves, and thus the soldier, 
who left his family to enlarge the dominions of Rome, had neithei 
farm nor money for reward ; besides, if the poor man fell in debt, 
the rich creditor might sell him for a slave until the sum was paid. 
This complication of evils filled the city with discontent and murmur- 
ing; and when the consuls came to levy men in order to oppose Tar- 
quin, all the poor refused to enlist, declaring they would not go to 
war till their debts were canceled by a decree of the senate. The 
number of the malcontents increased every hour, and the senate, who 
saw the commonwealth upon the brink of ruin, had recourse to an 
expedient, which in the lapse of ages proved fatal to the republic. 

53. Dictators. — Unable to raise an army to meet the threatened 
invasion, they proposed to the people to elect a temporary magistrate, 
who should have absolute power, not only over patricians, plebeians, 
and magistrates, but over the laws themselves. The people complied, 
and Lartius was created the first Dictator of Rome. He entered 
upon his office surrounded with all the ensigns of royalty ; and the 
people, awed by his display of power, obeyed implicitly all his direc- 
tions. Before his six months were expired the Latins were con- 
quered, the murmurs appeased, and at the end of his time he laid 
down his authority, with the reputation of having exercised it with 
blameless lenity. 

54. Tribunes. — When the term of his office expired, matters were 
in no better state than before, and at last the great body of the ple- 
beians resolved to quit the city which gave them no shelter from 
oppression. They therefore formed themselves under their respec- 
tive ensigns, chose new commanders, and retired to Mons Sacer, 
a mountain about three miles from Rome, saying, as they went along, 
that "Italy would anywhere supply them with air and water, and a 
place of burial ; and that Rome, if they stayed in it, would do no more." 
Message after message was sent to them in vain ; the discontented in 
the city scaled the walls to join them, and the senate was divided in 

Questions. — 52, 53. What machinations was Tarquin still employing to destroy Rome ? 
What was the condition of the Roman people at that time ? What difficulties did they 
encounter in raising men to oppose Tarquin? What expedient was adopted by the senate ? 
What power was delegated to the dictator? Who first filled the office? How far was sue 
ojss attained ? 54. After the office of dictator expired, what new discontent arose? 



B. c. 491.] CORIOLANUS. 335 

opinion as to the course to be taken. Finally, a deputation of the 
most respectable persons in the city went to them, and one, by birth 
a plebeian, related to them the celebrated fable of " the Body and the 
Members." 

55. This fable had an instantaneous effect upon the people; they 
began to talk of an accommodation, and at length concluded to go 
back, upon condition that five new officers should be created from 
their own body, called Tribunes of the People, who should have the 
power of annulling such decrees as bore hard on the plebeians. The 
senate also agreed to abolish all debts ; and things being thus adjusted, 
the multitude returned in triumph to Rome. The new officers were 
then appointed. They had their seats placed before the doors of the 
senate-house, and, examining every statute, annulled it by the word 
Veto, " I forbid it," or signed it with T., which gave it validity. 
Seed-time passed while the people were on the mountain ; the fields 
produced no harvest the ensuing year, and famine began again to 
excite those murmurs which the concessions of the senate had appeased. 

56. A fleet came laden with corn from Sicily, and the starving mul- 
titude waited impatiently while the senate were deliberating upon its 
distribution. Coriolanus, a general distinguished in the Volscian 
wars, insisted that the senate should take this opportunity to secure 
their former power. He had been seventeen years a warrior, and was 
greatly beloved by the people till he began to oppose their aggressions. 
Now, when he took so decided a stand against the distribution act, 
they accused him of converting the spoils of the enemy to his own use. 
He was consequently sentenced to banishment. He returned to his 
house, embraced his mother, wife, and children, passed out of the city 
gates, and took his solitary way, no one knew whither. Having after 
some time matured a plan for humbling his enemies, he proceeded to 
the country of the Volscians, over whom he had gained so many vic- 
tories. Finding out the house of Tullus, his most implacable enemy, 
he entered, walked directly up to the fireplace, and seated himself 
among the household gods, without saying a word. Tullus rose from 
supper, and demanded, in astonishment, who he was, and upon what 
business he had come. Coriolanus, still retaining his seat in the sacred 
place, related the particulars of his exile, and laid before him his 
desires of vengeance. The noble Volscian instantly gave him the 
hand of friendship, and espoused his quarrel. 

Questions. — 54. In what manner was it reconciled ? 55. What were the new officers called ? 
How was the veto power first used ? 50. What relief came to the starving people of Rome ? 
State the circumstances attending the banishment of Coriolanus. What measures did he 
take to humble his oi.emies? 



330 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 491 

57. It was not difficult to find a pretext for war, and the Volscians, 
headed by Tnllus and Coriolanus, invaded the Roman territories, 
ravaging: all the lands belonging to the plebeians, but leaving those of 
the patricians untouched. The levies in Rome went on but slowly; 
and the consuls feared, with a reluctant army, to meet the renowned 
Coriolanus in the field. One town after another submitted to the 
Volscians, and the injured exile finally pitched his camp within five 
miles of Rome. The city, so lately the scene of turbulence and ani- 
mosity, was now filled with timidity and despair. The people, who 
had clamored for the banishment of Coriolanus, begged the senate to 
recall the edict. The senate obstinately refused. However, when the 
Volscians came up to the very walls and demanded the freedom of 
Roman citizens, both senate and people unanimously agreed to send 
deputies to Coriolanus, with proposals of restoration if he would draw 
off his army. 

58. The indignant general received the embassadors at the head of 
his officers, informed them that, as commander of the Volscians, he 
had only their interest to consider, and that if the Romans wished for 
peace, they must conclude within thirty days to restore all the towns 
originally belonging to Volscii. This deputation returned to Rome, 
and another was immediately sent to entreat Coriolanus not to exact 
of his country any thing improper for Romans to grant. He treated 
these envoys with great severity, and only allowed the senate three 
days for deliberation. A more dignified embassy was then prepared, 
to move the heart of the stern general. The pontiffs, priests, and 
augurs, clothed in sacred vestments, issued from the city, and, entering 
the camp of the conqueror with imposing solemnity, conjured him by 
the fear of the gods to give peace to his country. He treated them 
with respect, but dismissed them without lessening his demands. 

59. When the people saw the ministers of religion repulsed, they 
gave up the commonwealth for lost. While all r^nks were filling the 
temples with despairing cries, the aged sister of Publicola suddenly 
rose from before the altar, and, calling upon the matrons of Rome to 
attend her, proceeded to the house of Veturia, mother of Coriolanus. 
Actuated, as she said, by a divine impulse, she had come to beseech 
her to go with them, and make one more effort to save Rome. Vetu- 
ria obeyed the heavenly call, and, accompanied by Volumnia, wife of 

Questions. — 57. Give an account of the success of Coriolanus. 58. How did he receive 
the message sent by the citizens and senate of Rome? In what mr.r.ner did he receive and 
treat the second envoys? What term of time did he allow for deliberation * By what cir- 
cumstances did they dignify the third embassy? State the result. 5'j. What then were tho 
feelings of tho people ? Give the interesting particulars that brougL dbfetj to Rome. 



B. c. 458.] CINCINNATUS. 337 

Coriolanus, his two children, and the principal ladies of Home, took 
her way to the camp of her son. 

60. Coriolanus saw the mournful train from a distance, and deter- 
mining to deny their request, sent for the Volscian officers to witness 
his resolution ; but when his little ones clasped his knees, and his wife 
hung upon his neck in tender entreaty ; when his aged mother fell at 
his feet, and mingled the tears of an afflicted parent with the lofty 
remonstrances of a Roman matron, his inflexible spirit gave way. He 
raised her in his arms, and gazing upon her venerable countenance 
with melancholy forebodings, exclaimed, "Ah, my mother, thou hast 
saved Rome, but thou hast lost thy son." The victorious deputation 
returned with a truce to the city ; and Coriolanus, pretending that 
Rome was too strong to be taken, drew off his army. Tullus, who 
had long envied the great popularity of Coriolanus, represented this aa 
an act of treachery to the Volscians, and the noble Roman was soon 
after slain. 

61. Agrarian Law. — The people, thus delivered from threatened 
destruction, and encouraged by the concessions already made, clamored 
for the passage of the Agrarian law ; but the senators steadily resisted 
the demand. Thus matters grew worse and worse. The Equii and 
Volscii continually made incursions upon the Roman territories with- 
out, and the plebeians as constantly made encroachments upon the 
privileges of the patricians within. One consul was killed in battle ; 
the other, intimidated by the aspect of affairs, said he could do nothing 
alone, and must have a colleague. The senate fixed upon Quintius 
Cincinnatus for this office. He was a man of unblemished integrity, 
who, though a patrician and a soldier, had given up all ambitious 
thoughts, and retired to a small farm beyond the Tiber. The deputies 
found him in the field, diligently following the plow. 

62. He appeared little elated with the ensigns of power they brought 
him, or the pompous ceremony with which they addressed him, but 
instantly responded to the call of the senate, saying with regret to his 
wife, as he changed the homely garb of a husbandman for the purple 
robe of a consul, " I fear, my Atilla, that for this year our fields must 
remain unsown." His skill, moderation, and humanity reconciled the 
contending factions ; the tribunes ceased to urge the passage of the 
obnoxious law, and the senators adopted more conciliatory manners. 
Scarcely had Cincinnatus retired from his office, when the Equii and 

Questions.— 60. What was the fate of Coriolanus ? 61, 62. What new internal commotions 
distracted the commonwealth ? What was the agrarian law? Arts. A law to divide all the 
lands equally among the people. By whom were the difficulties reconciled ? What was tbo 
enviable character of Cincinnatus ? 
15 



338 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 458. 

Volscii made new inroads into the territories of Korae. The general 
sent to repel them, through want of skill or want of courage, suffered 
his troops to be driven into a defile between two mountains, where 
the enemy blockaded them, presenting the three terrible alternatives, 
submission, famine, or death. A few knights escaped, and carried the 
news to Rome. Consternation seized all ranks of people, and again 
Cincinnatus was summoned from his cheerful labors to assume the 
unlimited power of dictator, b. c. 458. 

63. On entering the city, he gave orders that every person capable 
of bearing arms should repair before sunset to the Campus Martins, 
with necessary equipments and provisions for five days. At the 
head of this force he commenced his march that night, and before 
daybreak arrived in sight of the enemy. Coming up in the rear of 
the Volscian army, his soldiers set up a loud shout, which was gladly 
echoed by the Romans within the defile. The Volscii, amazed to find 
themselves between two enemies, commenced the attack, but were 
entirely beaten, and compelled to beg a cessation of arms. Cincinna- 
tus gave them their lives, but obliged them to pass under the yoke, in 
token of servitude. Thus, having rescued a Roman army, defeated a 
powerful enemy, and gained an immense amount of spoil, he returned 
to Rome and resigned his dictatorship, after enjoying it four days. 

64. The next year, however, all the tribunes joined together, and 
required that Mount Aventine should be given to the plebeians ; thi9 
was ceded, but the people were not satisfied. The Agrarian law was 
constantly agitated, and disputes upon the subject often ended in 
blows. A day was finally fixed for the public discussion of this impor- 
tant measure ; and to this meeting came one Siccius Dentatus, a well- 
known patriot. He had served his country in wars 40 years ; had 
been an officer 30, first a centurion, then a tribune; he had fought 120 
battles ; had gained 14 civic,* 3 mural, and 8 golden crowns, besides 
83 chains, 60 bracelets, 18 gilt spears, and 23 horse-trappings ; he had 
received 45 wounds, the scars of which he exhibited ; yet he had never 
obtained possession of any of those lands which his courage had won 

* A civic crown, made of oak-leaves, was given to him who had saved the life of a citizen. 
_». mural crown was awarded to him who first scaled the walls of a city, and a golden crown 
was the tribute to the brave soldier who first mounted the rampart in the face of the 
enemy. 

Questions. — 62. What troubles recalled Cincinnatus? What power was given him? 
When did that occur? 68. What commands did Cincinnatus issue? What march com- 
mence ? What army conquer ? What enemy subjugate ? What spoils accumulate ? How 
was the yoke made ? Ana. By setting two spears upright and placing another across the 
top of them. How long was Cincinnatus dictator? By what act did he cease to be such ? 
64. What troubles followed during the next year? What is said of Dentatus? 



p.. c. 451.] THE DECEMVIRI. 339 

and his valor defended. His had been a life of poverty and contempt, 
while others enjoyed in indolent security the fruit of his labors. The 
wrongs of Dentatus created such a clamor as drowned the voices of 
those senators who wished to speak against the law. Reason could 
no longer be heard ; and the young patricians, seeing the people about 
to vote, ran in among the throng, broke the balloting-urns, and dis- 
persed the crowd. This, for the time being, put off the hated law. 

65. Solon's Laws brought to Rome. — The commonwealth of 
Rome had been for 60 years fluctuating between the contending 
orders which composed it, and each side began to wish for something 
more settled and definite than decrees of the senate and votes of the 
people. They therefore agreed to send embassadors to Athens, to 
bring home such laws as by experience had been found best adapted 
to the purposes of a republic. Three senators were chosen for this 
solemn deputation, and three galleys were fitted out to convoy them 
to Greece in a manner suitable to the majesty of the Roman people. 
In about a year they returned, bringing a digest of Solon's laws, and 
a collection of the principal civil codes of Greece and Italy. The tri- 
bunes then required that a body of men should be appointed to put 
their new laws into proper form, and enforce their execution. After 
long debates, ten of the principal senators were elected, whose power, 
continuing one year, should be equal to that of kings and consuls, 
without any appeal. Thus the whole constitution took at once a new 
form, and all magistrates resigned their authority. 

66. Decemviri. — These officers agreed among themselves to reign in 
succession, one day at a time, the ruler of the day only bearing the 
ensigns of power. By the help of an interpreter they formed a body 
of laws from those brought from Greece, submitted them to the appro- 
bation of the people, and then, causing them to be engraven on plates 
of brass, hung them up in the most conspicuous part of the forum. 
The people supposed that they would lay down their power at the end 
of the year, but, pretending that something still remained to the com- 
>letion of their purpose, they retained their office another term ; and 

the third year they seized upon the administration of government, in 
defiance of senate and people, and ruled without control. The tyranny 
of the decemviri, however, like that of Tarquin, was overthrown by 
the virtue of a Roman female. 

67. Story of Virginia. — Appius, sitting one day upon hi* tribunal, 

Questions.— G4. What circumstance put off the hated law? 65. What new form of gov 
eminent did they then seek ? What instructions in government did they get from abroad* 
66. What is said of the decemviri? 



340 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 449 

saw a maiden of exquisite beauty, passing to one of the public schools, 
attended by a matron, her nurse. The next day, she passed again ; 
her loveliness attracted his attention, and awakened his curiosity. 
He made inquiries concerning her name and parentage, and finding 
that her father was a centurion in the army, he gave up all thoughts 
of marriage ; for the very laws he had been so industriously preparing, 
forbade the intermarriage of patricians with plebeians. After vainly 
endeavoring to corrupt the fidelity of her nurse, he had recourse to an 
expedient still more criminal. One Claudius was instructed to claim 
her as a slave, and refer the cause to the tribunal of the decemvir. 
Claudius accordingly entered the school where Virginia was playing 
among her companions, and seizing upon her as his property, was 
about to drag her away by force, when he was stopped by the crowd 
drawn together by her cries. At length he prevailed so far as to be 
permitted to lead the weeping girl to the tribunal of Appius, where he 
stated that she was the daughter of his female slave, who, having been 
sold, and adopted in infancy by the wife of Virginias, had been edu- 
cated as the child of the centurion. He begged time to collect his 
witnesses of these facts, and insisted on retaining possession of the 
maiden, as her lawful master. 

68. Appius, with the air of an impartial judge, decided this to be a 
just demand ; and Claudius was taking her away, when Icilius, her 
lover, seconded by the multitude, raised such a commotion that Appius, 
fearing an insurrection, thought proper to suspend his judgment till 
Virginius could return from the army, then about eleven miles from 
Rome. The day following was fixed for the trial, and Appius, in the 
mean time, sent letters to the generals to confine Virginius, as his 
arrival in town might excite sedition. These letters were intercepted 
by the centurion's friends, who gave him a full relation of the affair, 
Virginius immediately obtained permission to leave the camp, and 
flew to the protection of his child. At the appointed hour, to the 
astonishment of Appius, he appeared before the tribunal, leading his 
lovely daughter by the hand, both habited in the deepest mourning. 
Claudius was there also, attended by a female slave, who swore posi- 
tively that she had sold Virginia to the wife of her reputed father. 

69. Virginius then introduced the most unanswerable proofs of his 
paternity, and was proceeding to make an appeal to the people, when 
Appius interrupted him, by saying that he was sufficiently instructed 
in the merits of the case. "Yes," said he, "my conscience compels 



Questions. — 67. 6S, G9, TO, 71. Eelate the story of Virginia, and the merited vengeance of 
the suffering fatuer. 



&c. 449.] MILITARY TRIBUNES. 341 

me to declare, that I myself am a witness to the truth of the deposi- 
tion of Claudius. Most of this assembly know that I was left guardian 
to this youth, and I was very early apprised of his right to this young 
woman ; but the affairs of the public, and the dissensions of the people, 
then prevented my doing him justice. However, it is not now too 
lute, and by the power vested in me for the public good, I adjudge 
Virginia to be the property of Claudius, the plaintiff. Go, therefore, 
lictors, disperse the multitude, and make room for a master to repos- 
sess himself of his slave." 

70. The lictors, in obedience to this command, drove off the crowd, 
and, seizing upon Virginia, were delivering her up to Claudius, when 
Virginius, seeming to acquiesce in the sentence, mildly entreated 
Appius to be permitted to take a last farewell of one whom he had so 
long considered as his child. With this the decemvir complied, upon 
condition that their endearments should pass in his presence. Virgi- 
nius took his almost expiring daughter in his arms, supported her head 
upon his breast, and wiped away the tears that rolled down her 
cheeks; then, gently drawing her near the shops that surrounded the 
forum, he snatched up a knife that lay upon the shambles, and crying 
out, " My dearest, lost child, this alone can preserve your honor and 
your freedom," buried the weapon in her breast! Then holding it up, 
reeking with her blood, "Appius," he exclaimed, "by this blood of 
innocence, I devote thy head to the infernal gods." 

71. Appius ordered him to be seized, but in vain. As if maddened 
by the dreadful deed, Virginius, with the bloody knife still in his 
hand, ran through the streets of the city, calling upon the people to 
strike for freedom ; nor did he stop till he had reached the camp, and 
displayed before the soldiers the terrible instrument which had taken 
away the sweet Virginia's life. He asked their pardon, and the par 
don of the gods, for the rash act he had committed, but ascribed it to 
the dreadful necessity of the times, and conjured them, by that blood 
which he held dearer than his own, to redeem their sinking country 
from the hands of its tyrants. One thrilling sentiment of sympathi- 
zing indignation filled every bosom ; the soldiers called to arms, plucked 
up their standards, and, marching to Rome, seized upon Mount Aven- 
tine. The feelings of the senate corresponded to those of the army. 
The former government was restored ; Appius and Oppius died by 
their own hands in prison ; the other eight decemvirs went into volun- 
tary banishment ; and Claudius was driven out after them. 

72. Militaey Tribunes. — Quiet was scarcely restored, when the 

Questions.— -71. What became of Appius and Oppius ? Of the other offenders ? 



342 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 441 

tribunes proposed two laws : one to sanction the intermarriage of ple- 
beians with patricians, and the other to admit the plebeians also to the 
consulship. The senate, with great reluctance, granted the first, with 
the limitation, that a woman marrying a plebeian should lose all her 
patrician rights; and evaded the second, by proposing that six gov- 
ernors should be elected, called Military Tribunes, with consular 
authority divided among them all ; and at the end of a year, it could 
be determined whether these tribunes, or consuls, should administer 
me government. The people eagerly embraced the proposals. Both 
patricians and plebeians put on the white robes of candidates, and 
s>egged the votes of the comitia; but so fickle were the multitude, that 
ill the new officers were chosen from among the patricians. Their 
»ower was, however, of short duration. The augurs found something 
\miss in the ceremonies of the election, and in about three months 
they were compelled to resign to the consuls. 

73. Censors. — b. c. 443. — To lighten the weight of tho consular duties, 
two new officers, called Censors, were chosen to take an account of 
the citizens. Seated in their curule chairs, the censors reviewed the 
senate, deposed those proven unworthy of their high office, dismounted 
such knights as did not merit their spurs, and required of every citizen 
an exact account of his family and fortune. This calm was broken by 
a famine. At the next election the tribunes insisted upon having 
military tribunes instead of consuls, and during the succeeding twenty 
years the government changed from tribunes to consuls, and from 
consuls to tribunes, four times ; besides which, dictators were chosen 
upon several occasions. 

74. Things continued in this state of commotion for a long period, 
factions becoming every day stronger, and government weaker. The 
barbarous neighbors of the Romans seized every opportunity to en- 
croach upon their territories, and whenever levies were to be raised, 
the tribunes of the people vetoed the decree, until some concession 
was made increasing the authority of the lower orders. The citizens 
were at the same time husbandmen and soldiers ; the hands that drew 
the sword in one season, held the plow in another, and every man was 
obliged to furnish his own arms and provisions during a campaign. 
The hopes of plunder, and the honors of returning in triumph, were 
the chief incentives to enlist. But it often happened that the cam- 
paigns lasted through seed-time and harvest, and then debts were con- 

Queslionx.—l'I. What is said of the military tribunes that followed? How long were 
they in power? T3. What new officers were then chosen? What duties did the censors 
perform ? What was the condition of the government for the next twenty years ? 74. What 
revolution finally took place and changed that mode of warfare ? 



b. o. 400.] C A MILL US. 343 

tracted which led to a train of extortions and exactions, which kept 
the plebeians constantly irritated against the patricians, and covetous 
of power for themselves. To remove these constant sources of disquiet, 
the senate laid a tax upon every citizen, and from this fund paid a 
regular sum of money to every soldier. Thus the whole method of 
warfare was changed, and regular lengthened campaigns took the 
place of mere predatory excursions. 

75. Veii Taken. — Rome Burned by the Gauls. — Samnite Wak. 
b. o. 400. — The city of Veii had maintained with Rome many gal- 
lant disputes for glory and power. The senate, now reconciled to the 
people, and masters of an army that they could keep in the field aa 
long as they thought proper, determined that, cost what it might, Veii 
should fall ; and the Romans in consequence encamped before the 
place, prepared for a long and obstinate resistance. The soldiers had 
been accustomed to make a summer campaign, and return home to 
winter, but now they were obliged to stay year after year in the 
enemy's country, living in tents made of the skins of beasts, and suffer- 
ing, as might be supposed, every hardship from the sallies of the 
besieged and the inclemencies of the weather. The length and expense 
of the war excited murmurs and discontent, both in the camp and at 
home; and in the tenth year, tribunes and consuls having been alike 
unsuccessful, the senate appointed Fabius Oamillus dictator. 

76. This officer soon changed the aspect of affairs. Keeping up the 
regular attacks, to amuse the enemy, he employed a great part of his 
soldiers in digging a mine beneath the walls. The work was pursued 
with vigor, and the subterranean passage was finally terminated directly 
beneath the temple of Juno, in the citadel. An assault was then made 
without, to call the Veians to the walls, while a select band, marching 
underground to the temple, removed the pavement over their heads, 
and suddenly appeared to priests before the altar. They fled in dis- 
may. Fresh bodies of Romans poured in, and the city was taken after 
a short but ineffectual resistance. Thus, like a second Troy, Veii fell, 
after a ten years' siege. The army returned home greatly enriched 
by the spoils, and Oamillus triumphed with excessive pomp, painting 
his face with vermilion, and riding through the city in a chariot 
drawn by four milk-white horses, a distinction which displeased most 
of the spectators, and excited that envy which afterwards wrought his 
ruin (b. c. 39). 

77. Exile of Oamillus. — Not long after, the tribunes proposed 

Questions.— 75, 76. Describe the siege and taking of Veii. What circumstance of folly 
destroyed Oamillus? Why did Camillus act thus? Aus. In imitation of the gods. 



344: COMMONWEALTH OF ROME [b. c. 396 

that the senate and the people should be divided into two equal parts, 
and that one part should remain in Rome, while the other settled in 
Veii. Camillus opposed this measure, and invented delays of various 
kinds, to keep it from being brought before the comitia. The trib- 
unes, in revenge, accused him of converting two brazen gates, taken 
from Veii, to his own use. He was cited to appear before the people. 
The proud spirit of Camillus could not brook the infamy of a public 
trial. After embracing his wife and children, lie departed from Rome. 
As he passed the gates, he turned his face to the capital, and, lifting 
his hands to heaven, entreated the gods, that "if he were driven out 
without any fault of his own, the Romans might quickly repent their 
envy and injustice, and express to the world their want of Camillus." 

78. About two centuries before this time, the Gauls had sent out 
vast numbers of emigrants in search of more fruitful lands than the 
frozen shores of the Baltic. A band of them settled in the northern 
part of Italy, took eighteen cities from the Tuscans, and, invited by 
the softness of the climate, but more especially by the softness of the 
wines, spread themselves still farther to the south. Hordes of these 
barbarians, wild from their original deserts, were now besieging Clu- 
sium, under the command of Brennus, their king. The inhabitants of 
Clusium entreated the assistance of the Romans. The senate, who 
had long made it a maxim never to refuse succor to the distressed, 
sent embassadors to the Gauls, to inquire what offense the citizens of 
Clusium had given them. 

79. Brennus received the deputies with great complaisance, listened 
to what they had to say with due respect, and replied with becoming 
gravity: "The injury the Clusians do us, is their keeping to them- 
selves a large tract of ground while they can only cultivate a small 
one, and refusing to give a part to us, who are numerous and poor. 
We follow, like the Romans, the most ancient law, which directs the 
weak to obey the strong; cease then to commiserate the Clusians, 
lest you teach the Gauls to pity those who have been oppressed by 
your own people." The Roman embassadors, instead of returning 
home with this cutting answer, entered the city, and, forgetful of their 
sacred characters, headed a sally of the besieged, and one of them was 
surprised in an attempt to strip a Gaul whom he had just slain. 
Brennus, calling the gods to witness that against all the sacred laws of 

Questions.— 77. What accusations were brought against Camillas to effect his banish- 
ment? What did Camillus do? 78. What is said of the movement of the Gauls? Where 
was Clusium? (See map No. 4.) What assistance did the Clusians ask for? How did the 
Romans respond? 79. What reply did Brenuus make? What then did the embassadors 
do? To what did their conduct lead ? 



B. c. 390.] THE BURNING OF ROME. 345 

nations an embassador bad acted as an enemy, immediately led off bis 
army toward Rome. 

80. Rome Btjkned by the Gauls. — The prodigious numbers of the 
G-auls, their glittering arms, their fury and impetuosity, struck terror 
wherever they came ; Brennus, however, neither pillaged the fields 
nor insulted the cities, but passed on as rapidly as possible, crying out 
that he was at war with the Romans only, and considered all others 
as his friends. Six military tribunes at that time commanded the 
Roman army. They met the Gauls on the banks of the river Allia, 
about eleven miles from the city. The Romans engaged in a dis- 
orderly manner, were shamefully beaten, and put to flight. Some 
escaped to Rome, and some to Veii. The account of the fugitives 
filled all ranks of people with terror. The Gauls, however, not know- 
ing the extent of their victory, continued two days feasting upon the 
field of battle. In this time all the Romans capable of bearing arms 
retired to the capitol. which they fortified with strong ramparts and 
provided well with arms. The Vestal Virgins took up the Sacred 
Fire and holy relics, and fled away with them to the little city of 
Caere. 

81. The priests and most ancient of the senators could not think of 
leaving the city. Therefore, clothing themselves in their holy vest- 
ments and robes of state, in a form dictated by the pontifex maximus, 
they devoted themselves for their country, and, seating themselves in 
their ivory chairs, in the most conspicuous part of the forum, calmly 
awaited their fate. The rest of the people, a poor, helpless multitude 
of old men, women, and children, sought shelter in the neighboring 
towns, or shut themselves up in their houses, to end their lives with 
the ruin of Rome. On the third day, Brennus appeared with all his 
forces before the city. None disputed his approach; the walls were 
undefended ; the gates stood wide open to receive him, so that at first 
he suspected some stratagem ; but, finding that the people had really 
given up to. despair, he entered by the Colline gate, set a strong guard 
before the capitol, and went on to the forum. 

82. There he beheld the undaunted senators sitting in their order, 
leaning upon their staves, in the most profound silence. The splendid 
habits, the majestic gravity, and the venerable looks of these old men, 
awed the barbarians into reverence ; they took them for the tutelar 
deities of the place, and commenced a species of adoration, till one, 

Questions.— 80. What further can you state of the conduct of Brennus? Where did tha 
Romans meet the Gauls? What was the result? What then followed? 81. Give an ao 
count of the course taken by the priests, senators, and other people of Rome. Of the taking 
of Home by Bivnnus. 
15* 



346 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. |b. c. 390 

more forward than the rest, stretched oat his hand, and stroked tho 
long white heard of Papyrius, the former dictator. The indignant 
senator, lifting his ivory scepter, struck the savage to the ground. 
The Gaul returned the blow with his sword; a general slaughter 
ensued, and every one of the devoted hand poured out his blood upon 
the spot where he had dedicated himself to the infernal gods. Nor 
did the carnage stop here. The savages continued the slaughter three 
days, sparing neither sex nor age, and then, setting lire to the city, 
burned every house to the ground. 

83. The capitol alone resisted all their eiforts. Every thing without 
that fortress was an extensive scene of misery and desolation — every 
thing within showed that resolution which springs from despair. 
Those magnificent buildings which were once the pride of Rome were 
a heap of shapeless ruin. All the neighboring towns shared a similar 
fate ; for Brennus, taking up his quarters in Rome, sent out foraging 
parties, who ravaged the country with fire and sword. It happened 
that a body of the barbarians strayed into the neighborhood of Ardea, 
where Camillus, since his exile, had lived in absolute retirement. The 
noble-minded Roman, having engaged the youth of Ardea in his service, 
was waiting an opportunity to strike a blow for his country. The 
Gauls, loaded with plunder, encamped upon the plains in a disorderly 
manner, and night found them intoxicated with wine, and overcome 
with sleep. Camillus attacked them about midnight ; the sounding 
of the trumpets aroused the Gauls in such haste and confusion, that 
they were incapable of concerted action. A few, whom fear made 
sober, snatched up their arms and fell fighting; but the greater part 
of them, buried in sleep and wine, were surprised, and easily dis- 
patched. 

84. The fame of this action reached the neighboring cities, and drew 
crowds to Camillus. The Romans who had fled to Veii flocked to his 
standard, and urged him to take the title of dictator, and lead them 
to the relief of the city, but he refused to do so till legally appointed 
by the Romans in the capitol. It seemed impossible for a messenger 
to pass into the citadel, surrounded as it was by enemies. However, 
a young man named Pontius Cominius readily undertook the fearful 
task. Having dressed himself in mean attire, under which he con- 
cealed large pieces of cork, he traveled all day, and reached the Tiber 
about dusk. There he took off his clothes, wrapped them around his 

Questions.— 82. Of the slaughter of the senators. Of the further carnage. What else did 
the Gauls do ? 83. In what effort were the Gauls foiled ? Describe the then condition of 
Come. In this emergency what was the conduct of Camillus? 84. Who was Pontius Co- 
ininius ? Describe the part he took in the drama. 



B.C.390.] THE CAPITOL SAVED. 347 

head, laid himself down upon his cork buoys, and easily swam across 
to the city. 

85. The siege had now lasted more than six months; the provisions 
of the garrison were almost exhausted; the soldiers dispirited with 
continual fatigue; and the sentinel, as he walked his weary round, 
saw nothing within but haggard, despairing countenances, and nothing 
without but the ruins of his loved city. Suddenly his attention was 
arrested by the sight of a man climbing up the steep rock, and making 
his way directly toward him. He hailed the strange intruder, and 
received a reply in the native Latin. This was Pontius Oominius, 
bringing tidings to the besieged. The old and the young gathered 
around with tearful interest while he told them of the efforts their 
brethren were making for. their relief, and assured them that the 
generous Camillus was levying an army, and only waited for the order 
of the senate to enter the field and give the barbarians battle. The 
small portion of the senate that remained immediately issued a decree, 
by which Camillus was made dictator ; and the messenger, having 
received assurance that they would sustain the siege to the last extre- 
mity, returned the way he came, and, escaping all the dangers of his 
perilous route, arrived at Veii in safety. 

86. A few days after, Brennus discovered the tracks which Oomi- 
nius had made in climbing to the citadel. In the evening he assem- 
bled the lightest and most active of his troops, and offered the highest 
rewards to those who would reach the top by the same path. A num- 
ber readily undertook the dangerous enterprise, and before midnight 
a band of the bravest had scaled the precipitous steep, and stood upon 
the very wall. The sentinel was fast asleep; the dogs within gave no 
signal, and the enemy stealthily advanced to the surprise, when the 
Romans were awakened by the gabbling of some sacred geese kept in 
the temple of Juno. The besieged awoke at once to a sense of their 
danger, and each, snatching the weapon he could most readily find, 
ran to oppose the assailants. Manlius, a pJttrician, was the first who 
inspired courage by his dauntless bravery. He encountered two Gauls 
at once, killed one with his sword, and dashed the other down the 
precipice ; then, standing upon the rampart, he shouted to his fellows, 
and soon the summit was cleared of the enemy. Having thus escaped 
this imminent danger, they threw the sleepy sentinel down the rock 
after the vanquished foe, and decreed to Manlius all they had to bestow 

Questions. — 85. How were the tidings of Pontius Cominius received? What afflictions 
were still pressing upon the besieged? What action was taken by the portion of the Eo- 
man senate remaining in the capitol ? 86. What discovery did Brennus make ? What offei 
did he make ? How was it responded to ? Give an account of what followed. 



348 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 390 

■ — the allowance of each man for one day — which was only a half a 
pound of bread and a small draught of water. 

87. From this time the Gauls began to lose courage. Provisions 
were scarce ; they could not forage for fear of Camillas ; and the 
besieged, though starving, threw over several loaves into their camp, 
to convince them that they had no fear of famine. Sickness, too, 
which took its rise from the unhealthiness of an atmosphere filled 
with ashes, and corrupted by the effluvia of dead bodies, destroyed 
many of their bravest men, and depressed the spirits of the remainder. 
The Romans, equally in want, and unable to hear any thing of Camil- 
lus, began to incline toward a treaty. The advanced guards com- 
menced conversation, and proposals of accommodation soon passed 
between them. It was agreed that the Romans should pay the Gauls 
one thousand pounds of gold ($225,000), and that the Gauls should 
immediately quit the city and its territories. The conditions having 
been confirmed by an oath on each side, the gold was brought out, 
but while they were weighing it, the Gauls kicked the beam. The 
Romans expressing their resentment, Brennus, in a contemptuous 
manner, threw his sword, belt and all, into the scale, and when one 
inquired what that meant, " What should it mean," said he, " but woe 
to the conquered ? " 

88. Some of the Romans were highly incensed, and talked of taking 
away their gold ; others contended that the indignity lay not in pay- 
ing more than was due, but in paying any thing. The dispute was 
rapidly progressing to blows, when a new speaker suddenly appeared 
upon the stage. This was Camillus. At the head of a large army, he 
had silently entered the gates, and sending the main body through the 
principal streets, marched rapidly himself, with a select band, to the 
scene of debate. The Romans instantly gave way, and received the 
dictator with respect and silence. He took the gold out of the scales, 
and giving it to the lictors, with an air of authority, ordered the Gauls 
to be gone, telling them "it was the custom of the Romans to ransom 
their country, not with gold, but with iron;" adding, "It is I, only, 
that can make peace, as the dictator of Rome, and my sword alone 
shall purchase it."* A skirmish ensued, but the Gauls retreated to 
their camp, and in the night Brennus drew his forces out of the city, 

* Many contend that the Gauls kept their gold, and left Eome voluntarily. 

Questions. — 87. How were the Gauls affected? What sufferings did they undergo? 
What accommodations were prepared ? In what manner was the pledge rejected ? 88. Jp 
this crisis who came to the relief of the Romans ? State how. Give an account of the skir- 
mish and battle that followed. What took place in process of time? 



B. c. 384.] ROME REBUILT. 349 

and pitched his te.it eight miles distant, on the Gabian road. Here a 
battle was fought, in which the Gauls were completely routed ; and in 
process of time the Roman territories were entirely cleared of the 
formidable invaders, who had occupied them from the ides of July to 
the ides of February. 

89. Rome Rebuilt. — The refugees returned with their wives and 
children ; the famishing denizens of the capitol met them with teara 
of joy; and the priests and vestals brought back the holy things into 
the city. But there were no houses for the people to dwell in, no 
temples to receive the venerated images ; the tribunes, who main- 
tained a respectful demeanor while the Gauls were in sight, began 
again to urge the removal to Veii ; and so fearful were the senate of 
this event, that they would not permit Oamillus to lay down the office 
of dictator, though no person had ever before held it more than six 
months. The people, affected by a heartless despondency, urged that 
they had no materials for building, and no means of purchasing any; 
that their bodies were weak, and their strength insufficient to patch 
up the ruins of a deserted city, while Veii stood entire, and ready to 
receive them. 

90. The senate, on their part, showed them the monuments and 
tombs of their ancestors, and begged them to remember the holy 
places consecrated by Romulus and Numa. They reminded them of 
the predictions that Rome was to be the head of Italy, and they urged 
the disgrace it would be, to extinguish again the sacred fire which the 
vestals had lighted since the war. Oamillus, after exerting all his elo- 
quence in favor of his native country, called upon the oldest senator 
to give his opinion. Just then a centurion, passing the house with the 
day-guard, called out to the ensign "to stop, and set up his standard 
there, for that was the best place to stay in." The senator, who had 
opened his mouth to speak, thanked the gods for this seasonable omen ; 
and the others, equally affected by superstition, decided that Rome 
should be their future residence. The people acquiesced, and all 
hands were speedily united in the work of rebuilding walls, temples, 
and dwellings. 

91. b- c. 384. — The bravery of Manlius in defending the capitol did 
not go unrewarded. The Romans erected a house for him near the 
place where he so distinguished himself, and appointed him a public 
fund for his support. But his ambition was only increased by an 

Questions.— S$. What difficulties attended the rebuilding of Rome ? 90. What did the 
senate do on their part? What Camillus? What happened just then? What was the 
effect? 91. How was Manlius rewarded? How did he then act? 



350 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 367. 

acknowledgment of his merits. He labored to ingratiate himself with 
the populace, paid their debts, and railed at the patricians. He talked 
about a division of land among the people ; insinuated that there 
should be no distinction of rank in the state, and was always attended 
by a crowd, whom he had made his very dear friends by repeated 
gifts. To counteract the effect of his seditious speeches, the senate 
proposed Camillus for military tribune ; and no sooner was he installed 
in office, than he appointed Manlius a day to answer for his crime. 
Manlius made no defense, but pointed silently to the capitol, as if to 
remind the people of his contest with the Gauls. Camillus, perceiv- 
ing the effect of this upon the multitude, had him taken to the Pete- 
line grove, and there, being out of sight of the scene of his exploits, 
the people condemned him to be thrown from the Tarpeian rock. 

92. The Licinian Law. — But this sacrifice did not give quiet to 
Rome. Many of the plebeians, during the distresses of their country, 
had acquired large fortunes, and were desirous to add to them a share 
of the honors of Rome. Fabius Ambustus had married his eldest 
daughter to Sulpicius, a rich patrician, and the youngest to an ambi- 
tious plebeian, named Licinius Stolo. It happened one day, when the 
wife of Stolo was visiting at the house of her sister, that Sulpicius 
came home from the forum, and his lictors with the staves of their 
fasces thundered at the door. She was greatly frightened, but her 
sister laughed at her as one lamentably ignorant of high life. This 
ridicule she could not endure, and from mortification and envy fell 
into a settled melancholy. The father and husband, having been made 
acquainted with the cause of her distress, assured her that her state 
should soon be made equal to that of her sister; and from that time 
Ambustus and Stolo exerted themselves in putting forward a plebeian 
for consul. To give popularity to the proposal, they coupled with it 
the Agrarian law. 

93. The contests which those hated measures excited were so great,, 
that for five years no supreme magistrates were chosen, the tribunes 
and sediles administering the government with as much moderation 
as the anarchy of the times would permit. Then they chose military 
tribunes two years; then made Camillus dictator; but this excellent 
man, finding the people resolved upon a plebeian consul, soon resigned 
his office ; the senate created another, but he did nothing more remark- 
able than making Stolo master of the horse, an office which no plebeian 

Questions. — 91. What ambitious views destroyed him? What was done to counteract 
the effect of his speeches ? What then followed to Manlius? 92, 93, 94. Kelate the story of 
Stolo's wife and her sister. What first gave existence to the Licinian law? Relate the 
etory of Stolo's success. 



B. C. 343.] THE SAMNITE WAR. 351 

had before held. Stolo also gained another point, which, though it 
did not bring his wife into the higher ranks, had a tendency to bring 
the higher ranks down to her. He secured the passage of a law* for- 
bidding any person to own more than 500 acres of land ; but, unfor- 
tunately, having afterwards possessed himself of 1,000, he was punished 
by his own edict. In this manner the flame of contention continued 
to burn, till it threatened to destroy all the virtue and patriotism of 
Rome ; and so far was the impudence of the people carried, that, on 
one occasion, the tribunes sent lictors to take Camillus off the public 
tribunal, where he sat dispensing justice, and carry him to prison. 

94. The patricians who stood around boldly repulsed the lictors, 
but the plebeians cried out, "Down with him, down with him." 
Camillus, perceiving that the people were determined upon having a 
consul, called the senators into a neighboring temple, and entreated 
them to give peace to the city by their compliance; then, turning his 
face to the capitol, he vowed to build a temple to Concord in case he 
saw tranquillity restored. In consequence of his advice, a law was 
passed that one of the consuls should be a patrician and one a plebeian ; 
and Licinius Stolo having been duly elected to this office, his wife 
enjoyed the supreme felicity of hearing her husband's lictors thunder 
at the door. Thus Camillus, having spent a long life in the service of 
his country (being now above eighty), laid down his dictatorship, and 
commenced the more peaceful occupation of superintending the erec- 
tion of the temple of Concord, built by a vote of the people, on a spot 
in the forum, fronting the place of assembly. He was five times dic- 
tator, five times military tribune, had the honor of four triumphs, and 
was styled " The second founder of Rome." He died the next year, 
of pestilence, which carried off a prodigious number of the inhabitants, J 
b. c. 361. 

95. Samnite War. — The Romans having triumphed over the Sa- 
bines, the Etrurians, the Latins, the Equii, and Volscii, began to look 
for greater conquests. About one hundred miles east of their city lived 
the Samnites, a hardy nation, descended from the Sabines, who pos- 
eessed a large tract of country, were strong in numbers and discipline, 

* This law was called the Licinian law, from Licinius Stolo. 

t About this time a gulf was opened in the forum, which the augurs declared would never 
close till the most precious things in Eome were thrown into it. Quintius Curtius, a young 
Roman of great bravery, declaring that nothing was more truly valuable than patriotism 
and military virtue, leaped into it, horse and all ; upon which, saya the historian, the gulf 
closed immediately, and Curtius was never seen again. 

Questions.— 94. What temple was built by Oamillus? What was be called? Why was 
he so called? In what year did he die ° How old was he then ? 95. What success led the 
Uomans to desire greater conquest ? 



352 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 310. 

and linked with confederated states. Some incursions npon the Oam- 
panians offered a pretext for a war, which lasted 71 years, and involved 
the Romans, finally, with the Grecian states. The Latins also revolted, 
and engaged with the Samnites. As the Romans were originally 
descended from this people, spoke the same language, and wore a 
similar dress, great care was necessary to prevent confusion in the 
battle; and Manlius Torquatus issued orders that no Roman should 
leave the ranks upon any provocation, under penalty of certain death. 
With these injunctions both armies were drawn out in array, and 
ready to begin, when the general of the Latin cavalry pushed out from 
his lines, and challenged any knight in the Roman army to single 
combat. 

96. There was a general pause, no soldier daring to disobey orders, 
till Titus Manlius, the consul's own son, burning with shame to see 
the whole Roman army standing as if intimidated, rode out into the 
open space, encountered the challenger, killed him, stripped him of 
his armor, and returned amid the shouts of his companions. Yet, 
doubtful of his reception from his father, he advanced with a modest 
air, and laid the spoils at his feet. He was made sensible of his error 
when the stern general, turning away, ordered him to be led forth in 
presence of the whole army. Then, addressing him with a firm voice, 
though the tears streamed down his cheeks, "Titus Manlius," said the 
afflicted parent, "as thou hast regarded neither the dignity of the 
consulship nor the command of thy father, as thou hast destroyed 
military discipline and set a pattern of disobedience by thy example, 
thou hast reduced me to the deplorable extremity of sacrificing my son 
or my country. But let us not hesitate in this dreadful alternative. 
Thou thyself wilt not refuse to die, when thy country is to reap the 
reward of thy sufferings. Go, lictor, bind him, and let his death be 
our future example." 

97. The whole army remained silent with horror while the inflexi- 
ble father pronounced this sentence; but when they saw the head of 
their young champion rolling in the dust, their execrations and groans 
filled the air. Their indignation found vent upon the enemy; the 
battle was joined with inconceivable fury, and victory seemed equally 
balanced for a long time. The augurs had declared that if any part 
of the Roman army should be distressed, the commander of that por- 
tion must devote himself to his country. Manlius commanded the 
right wing, and Decius the left. The latter, finding his men overborne 

Questions. — 95,96. What pretext for war was given them? What melancholy story is 
related of Titus Manlius? 97. How was the father's sentence received by the soldiers? 
What circumstance finally gave victory to Eome ? 



B.c. 281.] PYRRHUS SHIPWRECKED. 353 

by numbers, clothed himself in a long robe, covered his head, stretched 
forward his arms, and, standing upon a javelin, devoted himself to the 
celestial and infernal gods for the safety of Rome. Then, arming 
himself and mounting on horseback, he drove furiously into the 
enemy, carrying terror and consternation wherever he went, till ht 
fell, covered with wounds. The Romans considered his death a cer- 
tain presage of victory; and the Latins, equally superstitious, fled ii 
dismay. 

98. This was the last battle of consequence that the Latins evei 
fought with the Romans. They concluded a peace upon the hardest 
conditions, and were brought into entire submission. The remainder 
of this century was spent in the Samnite war. Each party suffered 
severe defeats; several truces were made and broken, and many brave 
men were killed in battle. At one time a whole Roman army was 
taken prisoners at the Caudine Forks, and compelled to pass under 
the yoke, a disgrace which was inflicted in turn upon the Samnites. 

99. Pyrrhus Defeated. — First and Second Punic Wars. — b. 0. 
300. — The Samnites alone could not have sustained so long a con- 
test with the Roman power. The neighboring states assisted with all 
their forces. Among others, the Tarentines entered the lists, but, 
finding in the sequel that they had drawn an implacable enemy upon 
themselves, they sent messengers across the narrow sea which separated 
them from Epirus, to entreat the assistance of Pyrrhus, then the most 
renowned warrior of Greece. 

100. b. c. 281. — Pyrrhus, who had always been ambitious to rival 
Alexander in the extent of his conquests, gladly accepted the call. He 
left the shores of Epirus with 20,000 foot, 3,000 horse, and 20 ele- 
phants. A great tempest agitated the Ionian Sea during his passage. 
The wind, as if in league with the- Romans, drove a great part of his 
vessels a wreck, and prevented his landing, till at last he was com- 
pelled to leap into the sea and swim ashore. He found the Tarentines 
occupied with the pleasures of bathing, feasting, and dancing, quite 
willing that he should fight their battles and earn the fame he had 
come so far to gain. The measures he took to inspire a more warlike 
spirit were not the most agreeable to them, and many left the city, as 
they said, to escape slavery. 

101. In the midst of these flattering prospects, he received intelli 
gence that the Roman consul, Laevinus, was coming against him with 

Questiom. — 98. How was the remainder of the century employed ? What was gc:'ng on 
in Greece at that time? 99. What difficulties commenced with the third century b.c? 
100. What call did Pyrrhus accept? How large was the force which he had? 8;.Ue the 
difficulties he encountered. 



354 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 280 

a great army. Though all the Samnite cities had not jet joined his 
standard, nor all his own forces arrived, yet, looking upon it as a dis- 
grace to sit still, he took the field with what troops he had, first send- 
ing proposals to the Romans to act as umpire between them and the 
Tarentines. To this message Lasvinus answered, " That the Roman* 
neither accepted Pyrrhus as a mediator, nor feared him as an enemy." 
War being thus determined, both armies pitched their tents in sight 
of each other upon the opposite banks of the river Lyris. The Roman 
consul, with the impetuosity of inexperience, gave orders for fording 
the river ; and the Grecian, as might be expected, stationed his troops 
in such a manner as to oppose the attempt. In spite of the efforts of 
the Thessalian cavalry and Epirean foot, the Roman legions effected 
their purpose, gained the southern bank of the river, and formed in 
good order in face of the enemy. 

102. The engagement then became general, and victory was long in 
suspense. The Romans had seven times repulsed the enemy, and had 
been seven times themselves driven back, when Pyrrhus sent his ele- 
phants into the midst of the battle. The Romans, who had never 
before seen creatures of such magnitude, were terrified by their fierce- 
ness, and by the castles upon their backs, filled with armed men. The 
horses shared in the general consternation, and, throwing their riders, 
fled snorting from the scene of terror. The rout became general. A 
dreadful slaughter of the Romans ensued; 15,000 were killed, and 
1,800 taken prisoners. 

103. The conquerors were also severe sufferers, and Pyrrhus was 
heard to remark, " One such victory more, and I am undone." Next 
day he entered the deserted Roman camp. As he gazed upon the 
bodies of the dead, and marked the noble resolution still visible upon 
their countenances, he exclaimed, "O, with what ease could I conquer 
the world, had I the Romans for soldiers, or had they me for their 
king." The Samnites and Lucanians joined him after this battle, so 
that with a recruited army he advanced within thirty-seven miles of 
Rome. But the Romans, though defeated, were still unconquered. 
•They used all diligence in levying forces and forming alliances, and 
never was there a time when their military and patriotic virtues shone 
with clearer luster. 

104. The Oeator's Success. — Pyrrhus, who boasted that he had 
won more cities by the eloquence of Cineas than by the force of arms, 



Questions. — 101. Give the preliminaries of the first battle between Pyrrhus and the Ro- 
mans. 102. Give ao account of the battle. 103. What were the fruits of such a victory ? 
What then was the condition of Rome ? What efforts did the Romans make? 



b.c.280.] COUNSEL OF APPIUS CLAUDIUS. 355 

sent his famous orator to negotiate a peace. The crafty Grecian, 
accustomed to the corrupt bribery which had wrought so many revo- 
lutions in his 5wn country, took with him splendid presents, not only 
for the senators, but for their wives. The Roman matrons, however, 
refused his gifts, saying they would accept his presents when the senate 
had decided to accept his friendship. A public audience was granted, 
and the disciple of Demosthenes used all his eloquence to persuade the 
Romans to enter into a treaty with Pyrrhus, which should secure 
safety for the Tarentines. Some inclined to peace, urging that they 
had lost- one great battle, and had still greater disasters to expect. An 
illustrious Roman, named Appins Claudius, who, on account of his 
great age and the loss of his sight, had retired from public business, 
ordered his servants to carry him in his chair to the senate-house. A 
respectful silence ensued upon his appearance, and all listened with 
the deepest interest, while he delivered his sentiments in the following 
terms: — 

105. " Hitherto, I have regarded my blindness as a misfortune, but 
now, Romans, I wish I had been as deaf as I am olind, for then I 
should not have heard of your shameful counsels, so ruinous to the 
glory of Rome. Where now are your speeches, so much echoed about 
the world, that if Alexander the Great had come into Italy when we 
were young, and our fathers in the vigor of their age, he would not 
now be celebrated as invincible, but, either by his flight or his fall, 
would have added to the glory of Rome. You now show the vanity 
and folly of that boast, while you dread that very people who were 
ever a prey to the Macedonians, and tremble at the name of Pyrrhus, 
who has all his life been paying his court to one of the guards of that 
Alexander. Do not expect to get rid of him by making an alliance 
with him. That step will only open a door to many invaders, for who 
is there that will not despise you, and think you an easy conquest, if 
Pyrrhus not only escapes unpunished for his insolence, but gains the 
Tarentines and Samnites, as a reward for insulting the Romans?" 

106. As soon as Appius had done speaking, the senate voted unani- 
mously for the war, and dismissed Cineas with this answer : " That 
when Pyrrhus had quitted Italy, they would enter upon a treaty of 
friendship and alliance with him, if he desired it ; but while he con- 
tinued there in a hostile manner, they would prosecute the war against 
him with all their force, though he should have defeated a thousand 

Questions.— 104, 105, 106. By what means did Pyrrhus undertake to negotiate a peace ? 
How were his gifts received by the Roman matrons? Who was Appius Claudius? What 
order did he give ? Who decided the question Of peace or war ? What were the arguments 
of Appius Claudius ? With what answer was Cineas dismissed ? 



356 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 279 

Lsevinuses." Cineas made a faithful report of all he saw in Rome to 
Pyrrhus. He said, that " the senate appeared to him like an assembly 
of kings; and as to the people, he was afraid that he had to do with a 
Lernaean hydra." But the character of the Romans was exhibited in 
a position still more elevated when Fabricius, an ancient senator, a 
pattern of cheerful poverty and virtue (who, though formerly a con- 
sul, had no plate in his house but a silver cup, the bottom of which 
was horn), came to treat with Pyrrhus upon exchange of prisoners. 

107. Pyrrhus received him with great distinction, and privately 
begged him to accept of a large sum in gold, as a pledge of friendship 
and hospitality. Fabricius refused the presents. Pyrrhus pressed 
him no further, but the next day he ordered an elephant to be armed, 
and placed behind a curtain. Upon a concerted signal the huge ani- 
mal raised his trunk over the venerable warrior's head, and used all 
his arts to intimidate him. Fabricius, without being the least discom- 
posed, said to Pyrrhus, smiling, " Neither your gold yesterday, nor 
your beast to-day, has made any impression upon me." Pyrrhus, 
charmed with the equanimity of a barbarian who had never learned 
philosophy, granted him all the prisoners without ransom, on the 
assurance of Fabricius that they should be returned in case of a 
renewal of the war. 

108. The Second Battle. — b. o. 279. — By this time, the Romans 
were ready again to take the field against the Grecians. Both armies 
met near Asculum, being about 40,000 strong. The Romans fought 
with more than common valor, but the Grecian phalanx stood immov- 
able amidst the desperate slaughter; and the elephants, pressing into 
the midst of the legion, again decided the victory in favor of the king. 
The Romans left 6,000 men dead upon the field, nor had Pyrrhus 
great reason to boast of his triumph; 4,000 of his soldiers were slain, 
including officers, and friends who had followed him from Greece; so 
that when one congratulated him upon his victory, he exclaimed 
again, "One such triumph more, and I am undone." This battle 
finished the campaign, and both parties retired into winter quarters. 
The next spring, Pyrrhus having received new supplies from home, 
and the Romans having made Fabricius consul, two armies, equal to 
those formerly victors and vanquished, were led into the field. 

109. While they were approaching, a letter was brought to Fabri- 
cius from the king's physician, in which the writer ofifered, for a suit- 

Queslions. — 106, 107. What report did Cineas make ? What purity of patriotism was 
exhibited by Fabricius? What was its effect upon Pyrrhus? 108. Describe the second 
battle. In what condition did the armies meet the following spring ? 



B.C. 279. J END OF THE SAMNITE WAR. 357 

able reward, to take his master off by poison, and thus rid the Romans 
of their most powerful enemy. Fabricius, indignant at the base pro- 
posal, sent the letter to Pyrrhus, telling him that he had chosen men 
of virtue and honor for enemies, and knaves and villains for friends. 
"Admirable Fabricius," cried Pyrrhus, at this new proof of his mag- 
nanimity, "it would be as easy to turn the sun from its course, as thee 
from the paths of honor." He punished the physician as he de- 
served, returned all his prisoners without ransom, and again desired 
peace. 

110. The senate, not to be outdone, sent back the same number of 
captive Samnites and Tarentines, but refused peace, except on the 
former condition. Pyrrhus was divided between shame and necessity. 
He was ashamed to leave the war unfinished, and he saw how hopeless 
was the prospect of subduing the Romans. An entreaty of the Sici- 
lians for assistance against the Carthaginians relieved his embarrass- 
ment. He placed a garrison in Tarentum, and embarked with all his 
forces for that island ; and the Romans, profiting by his absence, car- 
ried on the war with vigor for two years. At the end of this time 
Pyrrhus returned, and another battle with the Romans ensued. 

111. The Third Battle. — Pyrrhus, finding the balance turning 
against him, had recourse once more to his elephants. But for these 
the Romans were now prepared. Having ascertained that fire was the 
most effectual weapon against the huge creatures, they threw burning 
balls of flax and rosin against them, and drove them, mad with terror, 
back upon their own ranks. Pyrrhus in vain attempted to stop the 
flight and slaughter of his men ; the panic was general. He lost in 
that disastrous affair 23,000 of his best troops, and his camp was also 
taken. This last conquest was of the greatest service to the Romans.- 
The Grecian method of encampment became thenceforth- their own, 
and many of their succeeding victories were the direct result of the 
lessons they had learned of the unfortunate Epirots. 

112. Pyrrhus returned to Tarentum. Finding it impossible to raise 
another army among the disheartened Samnites, he privately embarked, 
and returned to Epirus with the remains of his shattered forces, leav- 
ing a garrison in Tarentum, merely to save appearances. This garri- 
son lorded it so inhumanly over the poor luxurious Tarentines that 
they surrendered; and thus ended the Samnite war, after continuing 

Questions.— 109. How did Fabricius treat the offer of the king's physician ? What excla- 
mation burst from the lips of Pyrrhus? 110. How did Fabricius's conduct influence his 
actions? . How long before another battle was fought with Pyrrhus ? 111. Describe the thirc' 
battle. Of what service was the conquest to the Eomans? 112. What movements did 
Pyrrhus then make ? By what act did the Samuite war end ? How long bad it continued ? 



358 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 264. 

71 years. The Roman commonwealth was at this time rich. There 
were 200,000 citizens capable of bearing arms; and such was theii 
renown abroad, that Ptolemy Philadelphus sent embassadors to con- 
gratulate them upon their success, and entreat their alliance. 

113. Fiest Punio* War. — We come now to consider Rome in a 
most interesting period of her history; when, venturing beyond the 
bounds of Italy, she stretched her arms across the sea, and began the 
conquest of other lands. About 100 years before the foundation of 
Rome, Dido, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, fled from the tyranny 
of her brother, with a select band of followers, and landed in Africa, 
near the spot where Tunis now stands. There a city was founded, 
which extended its commerce along the shores of the Mediterranean, 
and became one of the richest and most powerful cities in the world. 
Carthage also possessed, in the opinion of Aristotle, one of the most 
perfect governments of antiquity. At the time of the Punic wars she 
had under her dominion 300 of the smaller cities of Africa, with their 
territories. The expulsion of Pyrrhus from Italy — the subjugation of 
the Samnites and Tarentines — had made the Romans masters of the 
garden of Europe. Sicily was their granary, but, not content with 
the supplies of corn annually received, they secretly desired to possess 
the island itself, the more, perhaps, because Carthage claimed some 
of its cities, and sent her fleets unquestioned into the bay of Tarentum 
and up the Adriatic. 

114. A trifle could serve as a pretext for declaring war when both 
parties were predisposed for the contest, and that trifle was found in 
Sicily. Iliero, king of Syracuse, making war upon the Mamertines, 
entreated the aid of Carthage; and the Mamertines, to escape impend- 
ing ruin, threw themselves upon the protection of the Romans. The 
Romans came to the point at once, and boldly declared war against 
Carthage. But a serious difficulty presented itself in the outset. The 
Carthaginians were the greatest mariners in the world. The Romans 
had never been out of sight of land. The genius of Rome, however, 
patiently leveled every obstacle in its way to empire. A Carthaginian 
vessel was driven ashore upon the coast of Italy. The Romans imme- 
diately set about imitating this ship, and in two months had 120 
galleys ready for sea. Men long accustomed to husbandry alone now 

* Called "Punic," from Phenicia, the parent state. 

Questions.— 112. What then was the condition of the Roman commonwealth? Who sent 
embassadors? To whom were they sent? For what purpose were they sent? 113, 114. 
What war do we next come to? What was the origin of Carthage? What is said of its 
government? What gave rise to the first Punic war? What difficulty was overcome by a 
seeming accident? 



B. C. 25G] FIRST PUNIC WAR. 859 

became sailors, and committed themselves to the sea in their clumsy 
fleet. 

115. The consul Duillius, though ignorant of maritime affairs, in- 
vented an instrument which, upon an impulse of two ships, kept them 
grappled together, so that by this means the Komans had an oppor- 
tunity of engaging their enemies hand to hand. When the rival fleets 
met, he gained the victory by the superior courage of his soldiers, and 
took fifty of the enemy's ships. This unexpected success so gratified 
the senate that they decreed Duillius a signal triumph, and ordered 
that whenever he went out to supper a band of music should attend 
nim. The contest went on by land in Sicily, in the mean time, with 
varying success; victory sometimes declaring for the Carthaginians, 
and sometimes for the Komans. The latter took Agrigentum in 
Sicily, Alberia in Corsica, and the islands of Li pari and Malta. 

116. Expedition to Afp.ica. — But these trifling successes could not 
satisfy the ambition of the Romans. The conquest of Sicily they saw 
was only to be obtained by humbling the power of Carthage at home. 
They decided, therefore, to carry the war into Africa. A fleet of 
300 sail was fitted out, manned with 140,000 men, and Regulus and 
Manlius were created consuls to conduct the expedition. This arma- 
ment, the greatest that had ever left an Italian port, was met by the 
Carthaginians with a fleet as powerful, manned by sailors rather than 
soldiers. The Carthaginians managed their vessels with the greatest 
skill, and seemed at first to have the advantage; but when the ships 
came in close contact the Romans prevailed ; the enemy's fleet was 
dispersed, and 54 ships were taken. No further obstacle intervening, 
the consuls made a descent upon the coast of Africa, captured a Car- 
thaginian city, and took 20,000 prisoners. Soon after, Manlius was 
recalled to superintend the Sicilian war, and Regulus directed to con- 
tinue his conquests in Africa, and as his term was nearly expired he 
was made general, with the title of Proconsul. 

117. At first, Regulus was successful in his contests with the Car- 
thaginians. He defeated them in a pitched battle, and filled the land 
with such terror of the Roman name, that 80 towns submitted to his 
arms. The Numidians united with him, and ravaged the lands of Car- 
thage ; the peasants fled on every side to the city, and filled it with 

Questions. — 115. Who was Duillius ? What instrument did he invent to .aid the Romans ? 
Give an account of the naval contest. How was Duillius rewarded? What towns and 
islands did the Komans afterward take ? 116. In what manner did these trifling successes 
affect the Romans ? What did they consider necessary in order to humble Carthage ? What 
expedition was sent? Give an account of the naval battle that occurred. What further 
success did the Romans have ? Why was Manlius recalled ? To what position was Regulus 
appointed ? 117. Give an account of the successes of Regulus. 



560 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 279 

despairing cries for bread. The Carthaginians, as a last resort, sent 
to the Lacedemonians for help, offering to give their general the com- 
mand of the army. To provide also for the worst, they dispatched 
some of their principal men to Regulus, to beg a peace. This noble 
old general had long wished to return to his native country. He had 
heard that his steward was dead; that his servant had stolen all his 
instruments of husbandry; that his farm of seven acres lay unculti- 
vated ; and that his children were in danger of suffering actual want. 
All his personal feelings were therefore in favor of peace ; yet, con- 
sidering the duty he owed his country as paramount to all others, he 
.dictated such terms as he knew the Carthaginians would refuse. 

118. The treaty was consequently broken off, and both parties pre- 
pared for another engagement. Xanthippus, the Lacedemonian gene- 
ral, arrived in due season ; and by a skillful disposition of his forces, 
and the aid of his elephants, succeeded in defeating the enemies of 
Carthage. The Roman army was almost entirely destroyed, and Regu- 
lus was taken j>Tisoner.^ Nor was the defeat of their army, and the 
capture of Regulus, the only misfortune that befell the Romans. They 
lost Agrigentum ; their whole fleet perished in a storm ; they built 
another, which shared the same fate; they built yet another, which 
the mariners drove upon quicksands ; and, finally, they gave up for a 
time all hopes of rivaling Carthage by sea. They however continued 
their efforts by land, till they gained the greater part of Sicily. 

119. Regulus. — The Carthaginians, exhausted by the length of the 
war, determined to send embassadors to Rome, to negotiate a peace, 
accompanied by Regulus, whom they had now kept in prison four 
years. A promise was exacted from him, that he would return in 
case the senate did not accept of their offers, and he was given to 
understand that his life depended upon the success of his mission. 
When the venerable general approached the city, his friends came out 
to meet and conduct him home; but Regulus refused, with settled 
melancholy, to enter the gates, saying that he was but a slave to the 
Carthaginians, and unfit to partake in the liberal honors of his country. 
The senate assembled without the walls, to give audience to the era- 

* Roman historians say that the Carthaginians attempted to assassinate Xanthippus, 
that he might not take the honor of this victory away from them. 

Questions.— 117. What aid did the Carthaginians solicit? What private feelings did 
Regulus surrender to his patriotism? US. Who aided to defeat the Romans? Give an. 
account of the battle that then occurred. What is said of Regulus? What evils to the 
Romans followed in rapid succession? What advantage did they gain in Sicily? 119. 
Why did the Carthaginians again make offers of peace ? To what place did they send em. 
bassadors ? Who accompanied the embassadors ? Under what conditions was Regulus sent! 
In what manner were they received by the Roman senate ? 



b. c. 241.] FIRST PUNIC WAR. gfl[ 

bassadors, and Regulus opened his commission, as directed by the Car- 
thaginians. The senate, wearied with an eight years 1 war, were 
willing to accede to almost any proposals which would terminate it 
with honor; nor was it a slight consideration with them, that peace 
would liberate a brave old general, whom all the people revered and 
loved. 

120. Regulus, as one of the senate, had also the privilege of giving 
his opinion. When he came to speak, to the surprise of all, he insisted 
upon continuing the war. He assured the Romans that the Cartha- 
ginians could not hold out much longer; he said the people were 
harassed out with fatigues, and the nobles with contention ; and he 
supported his opinion by the consideration so weighty with the Romans, 
that their ancestors had never made peace till they were victorious. 
Advice so unexpected and magnanimous filled every one with admira- 
tion. The senate could not deny the justice of his remarks ; every 
feeling of patriotism enforced the counsels of Regulus ; and every sen- 
timent of humanity cried out against consigning the noble captive to 
torture and death. But Regulus himself relieved their embarrassment 
by breaking off" the treaty, and rising to return to his bonds. 

121. It was in vain that the senate and all his dearest friends 
entreated him to stay ; in vain his wife and children begged permis- 
sion once more to embrace him ; he persisted in keeping his promise; 
nor would he see his friends, lest their despair should move his resolu- 
tion. Without taking leave of those he should never again behold, he 
departed with the embassadors for Africa. Nothing could equal the 
disappointment and fury of the Carthaginians when informed by their 
deputies of the part Regulus had taken, and the influence he had 
exerted against them. The utmost ingenuity of savage cruelty was 
exerted to torture him. In the darkness of his prison, his eyelids 
were cut off, and then he was brought out and exposed to the burning 
rays of a tropical sun. Finally, he was put into a barrel stuck full of 
nails, that pointed inwards, and left to die of agony. 

122. The Treaty. — Both sides now took up arms with more than 
former animosity. The Romans, though so often wrecked, once more 
fitted out a fleet to dispute with Carthage the empire of the sea. In 
this effort they were again unsuccessful, and finally became so dis- 
couraged by the disasters they suffered from winds and waves, that 
for seven years they abstained from all naval expeditions. But their 

Questions. — 120, 121. W T hat was the advice of Regulus? "What course did he then take? 
What is said of the consequent disappointment and fury of the Carthaginians? What wa» 
the fate of Regulus? 122. How was the war then prosecuted? What is said of the next 
contest on the sea? Of its effects upon the Romans ? 
16 



362 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 211 

inflexible spirits could not be broken. In seven years the boys had 
become men, and the memory of storms and tempests had ceased to 
intimidate the former mariners. Another fleet was constructed, and 
by two splendid victories their fortunes were retrieved, and the power 
of Carthage so humbled at sea, that she was forced to conclude a 
peace on the very terms which she had before refused to Regulus. 
These were, that the Carthaginians should lay down 1,000 talents of 
silver to defray the expense of the war ; that they should pay 2,200 
more in ten years' time; that they should quit Sicily and the adjacent 
islands ; that they should never make war against the allies of Rome, 
or come with any vessels of war within the Roman dominions ; and 
that all Roman prisoners and deserters should be delivered up without 
ransom. To these hard conditions the Carthaginians subscribed ; and 
thus ended the first Punic war, which had lasted 24 years. 

123. Peace. — War with the Gauls. — This war being closed, a 
profound peace ensued, in which the temple of Janus was shut for the 
second time since the foundation of the city. The Romans now 
turned their thoughts to domestic improvement. They began to have 
a relish for poetry. Dramas were acted upon the Grecian model ; 
elegiac, pastoral, and didactic compositions assumed new beauties in 
the Latin tongue, and satire was invented by Lucilius. The Gauls, 
having again crossed the Apeninnes, entered Etruria, and wasted all 
with fire and sword, till they came within about three days* journey 
of Rome.* The celebrated Marcellus, afterwards called ''The Sioord 
of Rome," was appointed to lead forth the army against these in- 
vaders. 

124. Viridomarus, king of the Gauls, clothed in armor set off with 
gold and silver, rode out on horseback, and challenged the Roma& 
general to single combat. Marcellus, who never refused a challenge, 
nor ever failed of killing the challenger, spurred on his horse to the 
. ontest, vowiug to consecrate the armor of the barbarian to Jupiter. 
With a mighty stroke of his spear he pierced the breastplate of the 
Gaul, and with two or three more blows dispatched him. The two 

* The Romans, who still retained the remembrance of the sufferings of their city from 
these barbarians, made extraordinary preparations to meet them. They applied to the 
Bibjls 1 books for counsel, and, in compliance with the oracles, buried alive two Greeks (a 
man and a woman), and two Gauls also, in the beast market. 

Questions. — 122. Of the two victories gained by the Romans? Of the terms of peace 
exacted by Rome? How many years had the Punic war lasted? 123, 124. During the 
peace that followed, what advancements were made in literature and science? What diffi- 
culty with the Gauls diverted the attention of the Romans? Who was appointed to lead 
the Roman army ? Who was king of the Gauls ? Describe the encounter between the two 
personages. 



b. c. 218.] SECOND PUNIC WAR. 3(J3 

armies then met, and a prodigious slaughter of the Gauls ensued ; till, 
entirely beaten, they sued for peace. The triumph of Marcellus was 
one of the most splendid ever seen. The general, having cut the 
trunk of an oak into the form of a trophy, adorned it with the glitter- 
ing armor of Viridomarus, and, setting it upon his shoulder, rode 
through the city in a chariot drawn by four horses, while the army 
followed, singing songs and odes made for the occasion, and displaying 
the spoils they had taken from the enemy. 

125. Second Punio War. — b. c. 218. — The peace between Rome 
and Carthage had now continued 23 years. During this time, a man 
had grown up in the latter city to whom historians give the highest 
place as a general and a warrior. This was Hannibal, the son of 
Hamilcar, former general of Carthage. When his son was only nine 
years old. Hamilcar took him to the altar, and, laying his hand upon 
the victim about to be sacrificed, made him swear that he would never 
be in friendship with the Romans, nor desist from opposing their 
power, till he or they should be no more. This hatred, so early 
implanted, and so sedulously cultivated in the breast of Hannibal, 
had grown with his growth and strengthened with his strength ; and 
now, in the prime of life, he prepared himself to try whether Rome 
or he should fall.* 

126. The Carthaginians, who made peace only because they were 
no longer able to continue the war, having now recovered from their 
embarrassments, were excited by Hannibal to throw off their burden- 
some tribute, and attempt to regain the cities they had lost. To open 
the campaign, Hannibal crossed into Spain with a considerable body 
of forces, and laid siege to Saguntum, a city in alliance with the Ro- 
mans. As soon as news of this affair reached Rome, embassadors 

* The testimony of the historian may aid us in forming an idea of this extraordinary 
man. " He was possessed of the greatest courage in opposing danger, and the greatest 
Presence of mind in retiring from it. No fatigue was able to subdue his body; no rnisfor- 
cune could break his spirit. He was equally patient of heat and cold ; and he was frequently 
ound stretched upon the ground among his sentinels, covered only with his watch-coat. 
He was the best horseman and the swiftest runner of his time. He was experienced. saL':i- 
cious, provident, bold, prudeut in carrying out the most extensive designs, and fertile in 
expedients to perplex his enemies. 1 ' In consequence of his history having been written 
by those in Roman interest, the cruelty, faithlessness, and hypocrisy ascribed to him have 
found no friendly hand to palliate their enormity, and the failure of his mighty plans to 
redeem his country left him without a panegyrist ; so that, great as he unquestionably was, 
anil wonderful as were his. exploits, his character stands before us in a position which 
obscures its splendor and represses our admiration. 

Questions.— 124 The battle that followed. Marcellus's manifestations of triumph. 125. 
For what period of time did peace continue between Carthage and Rome? Give the early 
history of Hannibal, with his father's consecration and vow. 126. To what did Hannibal 
ir 'ite the Carthaginians? Where did he open the campaign? 



364- COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. f 21S 

were sent to Carthage to complain of the infraction of the treaty, and 
to require that Hannibal should be given up. This demand was 
refused. The principal embassador, perceiving the state of feeling 
imong the Carthaginian ministry, held out the skirt of his robe, say- 
ng, that " he brought them peace or war, and they might choose 
between them. 11 They desired him to deliver which he thought 
proper. " Then let it be war, 1 ' said the indignant Roman, and imme- 
diately took his departure. 

127. War being thus declared, nothing was left but again to build 
fleets, levy armies, raise supplies, and in every possible way prepare 
for conflict. Saguntum surrendered, and Hannibal soon overran all 
Spain with his victorious troops. Then, having collected a large army 
of all languages and nations, he resolved to carry the war into Italy 
itself, as the Romans had before carried it into the dominions of Car- 
thage. With 50,000 foot and 9,000 horse, he passed the Pyrenees 
into Gaul, traversed the vast forests, defeated the savage enemies, and 
crossed the rapid rivers which opposed his march, and in ten days 
arrived at the foot of the Alps, over which he had determined to 
explore a new passage into Italy. 

128. Passage of the Alps. — It was midwinter when this aston- 
ishing project was undertaken. The mighty glaciers which had been 
accumulating for ages frowned upon him from above, and vast caverns, 
through which the mountain torrents roared fearfully along, yawned 
from below ; the rude cottages which seemed to hang upon the sides 
of the precipices offered no friendly shelter; and bands of people, 
barbarous and fierce, dressed in skins covered with long, shaggy hair, 
rendered the prospect more forbidding, and the wilderness more ter- 
rible. But nothing could subdue the courage of Hannibal. Assuring 
his followers that they were now scaling, not the walls of Italy, but of 
Rome, he led them up the sides of the mountains, along the dizzy 
heights, over the icy paths ; and, driving back the barbarians, aftei 
nine days of incredible fatigue, gained a summit whence his soldiers 
could descry the fertile vales of Italy, spread out in beauty beneath 
the warm rays of the sun. 

129. After two days 1 rest, they prepared for the descent — a work 
more perilous than even the ascent had been. Prodigious quantities 
of snow had fallen, in which multitudes were buried ; every new 
advance seemed to increase the danger, till, at last, they came to the 

Questions. — 126. In this crisis, of what did the Romans complain? What did they re- 
quire ? In what manner was war finally declared ? 127. What success attended Hannibal ? 
128,129. Describe the passage over the Alps. Where was Ticiniura? Trebiariver? (Map 
No. 4.) 



B.C. 218.] SECOND PUNIC WAR 335 

verge of a rock above 300 yards perpendicular, which seemed utterly 
impassable. Despair appeared in every face but Hannibal's. He could 
not go round it; he would not turn back. He therefore made prepa- 
rations to level the obstruction. Great numbers of trees were felled, 
piled against it, and set on fire. "The rock, being thus heated," says 
Livy, "was softened by vinegar, and a way opened through which the 
whole army might safely pass." Then, as they descended, the valleys 
became more fertile, the cattle found pasture, and at the end of fifteen 
days Hannibal found himself upon the plains of Italy with about half 
his army — the rest having fallen victims to the inclemency of the 
weather, or the hostility of the natives. 

130. Battles of Ticinium and Trebia. b. o. 218. — The senate, 
during all this time, had not been idle. The army, headed by Scipio, 
had been ordered into the field to intercept the course of the invader ; 
and before the Carthaginians had recovered from their fatigues, they 
were attacked by the Romans near Ticinium. The consul was wounded 
in the beginning of the fight, and would have been slain, had not his 
son Scipio (afterward Africanus) saved his father's life at the hazard 
of his own. The engagement was for some time carried on with equal 
valor on both sides, till a party of Numidian horse, making a circuit, 
attacked the Romans in flank, and routed them with considerable loss. 

131. T>e Gauls, having been treated with great respect by the Car- 
thaginians joined the army of Hannibal. Sempronius, the other con- 
sul, resolving to repair the injury sustained by his colleague, gave 
battle again upon the banks of the river Trebia. Hannibal, aware of 
Roman impetuosity, sent off a body of 1,000 horsemen, each with a 
foot-soldier behind him, to ravage the country, and provoke the enemy 
to engage. The Romans drove them back, and they, seeming to be 
defeated, took to the river. The consul pressed on after them, and not 
till he had reached the opposite bank did he perceive that the day was 
lost; for his men, fatigued with wading the river, and benumbed with 
the coldness of the water, which reached their armpits, could not 
withstand the tremendous charge of the Carthaginians, and 26,000 
were either killed or drowned in the river. 

132. The loss of these two battles did not intimidate the Romans, 
nor lull Hannibal into false security. Preparations for the ensuing 
campaign were carried on with the greatest vigor on both sides. The 
Carthaginian general approached Rome by way of Etruria, through the 

Questions.— 130. Where did the enemies meet for the first battle? What service did 
Scipio render his father ? What circumstance decided the fate of the battle? 131. What 
new force joined Hannibal? By what stratagem did Hannibal provoke a second battle t 
Give an account of it. 132. Give a further account of Hannibal's march toward liome. 



366 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [r. c. 217. 

marshes of the river Arno. All the former fatigues of his army were 
nothing in comparison with what they suffered here. For three clays 
and three nights successively, they marched up to the knees in water, 
without sleep or rest ; the hoofs of the horses came off, and multitudes 
of the baggage beasts were left dead in the mud. 

133. Hannibal himself rode upon an elephant, the only one he had 
(eft, and, in addition to the feelings occasioned by the complicated 
distress of his army, suffered so much from an inflammation in his eyes 
that he lost one of them entirely. Hearing that Flaminius, with his 
army, lay in the direct road toward Rome, he turned aside, as if desi- 
rous of avoiding him, and ravaged the country with fire and sword. 
This had the desired effect. The consul could not bear to wait quietly 
for a re-enforcement, while the enemy was thus laying every thing 
waste around him, and, contrary to the advice of his friends, deter- 
mined to risk an engagement. 

134. Battle of Thrasymenus. Fabius. — Hannibal took a position 
with his army near Lake Thrasymenus, upon a chain of mountains, 
between which and the lake was a narrow passage, leading to a valley 
embosomed in hills. Into this valley Flaminius led his men to the 
attack. A mist rising from the lake obscured the sight of the Romans, 
so that they could not perceive the number or position of their ene- 
mies. They were accordingly defeated without having been able to 
do any thing worthy of the Roman name.* 15,000 fell in the valley, 
and 6,000 surrendered prisoners of war. Flaminius did every thing 
that valor could do to rally his forces, and finally died fighting alone in 
the midst of the enemy. 

135. When this news reached Rome, the prsetor assembled the 
people, and made the following proclamation: "Romans, we have 
lost a great battle ; our army is cut to pieces, and Flaminius is slain ; 
think, therefore, what is to be done for your safety." After the first 
consternation had subsided, they unanimously agreed to elect Fabius 
Maximus dictator; a man whose spirit and dignity admirably fitted 
him for the office. His house was one of the most illustrious in 
Rome, for the Fabian family once undertook alone to cope with the 
power of Veii, and 306 of them perished in one expedition. It was 

* While the battle lasted, an earthquake overturned whole cities, changed the course of 
rivers, and tore off the tops of mountains; yet so desperate was the fight, that neither party 
perceived the violent motion. 

Questions.— 133. By what means did he hasten another battle? 134. Where did the two 
nrinies meet? What gave the advantage to the Carthaginians? With what success was it 
followed? What was the fate of Flaminius? 135. At this crisis, who was made dictator of 
Louie ? What was the character of Fabius ? What is related of his house ? 



*. c. 217.J SECOND PUNIC WAR. 3G7 

the policy of Fabius* to harass, rather than fight, the Carthaginians. 
He always encamped on the high grounds, out of the way of the 
enemy's cavalry. When they sat still, he did the same; when they 
moved, he showed himself upon the hills, as if preparing for action ; 
he straitened their quarters, cut off their provisions, and kept them in 
constant fear of surprise. 

136. Hannibal, finding it impossible to bring on a general engage- 
ment, used all his arts to make Fabius appear the coward, rather than 
the skillful general. This impression actually pervaded the Roman 
camp, and some of the officers called Fabius the pedagoguet of Han- 
nibal ; and his general of horse sneeringly inquired " if he intended to 
take his army up into heaven, or to screen them from the enemy with 
clouds and fogs." Fabius bore all their taunts with the greatest 
equanimity; nor would he change his tactics, though he witnessed the 
ravaging of Samnium, and the plunder of many flourishing cities. At 
last, Hannibal determined to make use of a stronger bait, to draw the 
dictator from his impregnable station. For this purpose, he ordered 
his guides to conduct him to the plains of Gasinum ; but they, mista- 
king the word, through his barbarous pronunciation, led him to Casili- 
num, a valley stretching out to the sea. 

137. As soon as he had entered, Fabius seized the narrow outlet, 
and there held him in a most disadvantageous position, without any 
place of egress. Hannibal crucified his guides for their mistake, and 
set his African cunning at work to devise some means of escape. The 
plan he adopted was this. One dark night, he ordered lighted fagots 
to be tied to the horns of 2,000 oxen. The creatures were then driven 
slowly toward the pass, like an army marching with torches. The 
Romans took them for what they appeared ; but when the fire burnt 
to the quick, and the animals, mad with pain, ran up the hills with 
their foreheads flaming, and filling the air with unearthly sounds, the 
detachment set to guard the outlet, expecting they knew not what, 
fled to the main body. The Carthaginians seized the pass, and Han 
nibal escaped through the defile to Apulia. 

138. The Romans now murmured more than ever against Fabius, 
and his office soon after expiring, a violent contest arose about the 

* Washington has been called the American Fabius. 

t The office of a pedagogue was to attend children, to carry them ab »ut, and conduct them 
home. 

Questions.— 136, 137. By what policy did he thwart the wishes of Hannibal? Into 
what strait was Hannibal by mistake driven ? How did he free himself from the thnentem-J 
danger? Where was Lake Thrasymenus ? Casiuum ? Casilitium? (Map No. 4.) 



363 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [c. c. 216 

election of consuls. The citizens at length chose Varfo, a man sprung 
from the dregs of the people, rash and self-confident, and joined with 
him Emilius Paulus, father of that Paulas Emilius who so distinguished 
himself afterwards in Greece, and father-in-law of Scipio the Great. 
Fahius, who saw the danger that threatened the state from two such 
ill-matched commanders, entreated Emilius to guard against the 
devices of Hannibal and the rashness of Varro. Emilius promised to 
heed his caution, and set forth with his plebeian colleague at the head 
of 90,000 men, the flower of Italy. Hannibal, who had only about 
two-thirds as many troops, was encamped upon the plains of Cannas, 
in such a position that the south wind, which raised clouds of sand 
from the dry plains, would drive directly in the faces of an approach- 
ing enemy. 

139. Battle of Cann,e. — On the first day of their arrival it was 
Emilius's turn to command, and though Hannibal did all in his power 
to bring him to battle, yet he declined fighting under circumstances so 
disadvantageous. The next day, Varro, without waiting for the con- 
currence of Emilius, hung out the scarlet mantle, and, leading his 
troops across the river Aufidus, set the battle in array. Hannibal, 
who had been from daybreak marshaling his forces, disposed them in 
such a manner, that -when the main body should give way before the 
impetuosity of the Roman charge, the wings should surround the 
enemy, and thus engage on all sides at once. This was the principal 
cause of the carnage that followed. The Romans, penetrating the 
center, were completely embosomed ; and Hannibal's army, taking the 
form of a crescent, closed in behind them, and suffered none to escape. 

140. Varro fled with a few horse, and Emilius, covered with darts, 
which stuck in his wounds, sat down in anguish and despair, waiting 
for the enemy to dispatch him. His head and face were so disfigured 
with dust and blood, that many of his friends passed by without know- 
ing him. At last Lentulus, a tribune, flying on horseback, came up 
to the spot, and recognizing him, dismounted; "Emilius," cried he, 
"you at least are guiltless of this day's slaughter; take my horse, 
while you have any strength remaining ; I will assist you, and will 
defend you with my life." — "I thank thee, Lentulus," cried the dying 
consul, " but go, I command thee, and tell the senate to fortify Rome 
against the conqueror. Tell Fabius, also, that Emilius followed hig 

Questions.— 138. Who was chosen in place of Fabius to lead the Roman army ? Why 
was not Fabius recho6en? What is said of Varro? Who was Emilius Paulus? What 
advice did Hannibal give to Emilius? 139,140. Why did Emilius decline to give battle! 
What course did Varro pursue ? Describe the batcle that followed. Relate the conversa- 
tion between Emilius and Lentulus. By what name is that battle known ? 



B. 0.216.] SECOND PUNIC WAR. 3G9 

directions to the last, but was first overcome by Varro, and then by 
Hannibal." While he was yet speaking the enemy approached, and 
Lentulus, before he was out of sight, saw the consul expire, feebly 
fighting in the midst of hundreds. 

141. In this battle the Romans lost 53,000 men, several officers, and 
so many knights, that it is said Hannibal sent three bushels of gold 
rings to Cartilage, which those of this order had worn upon their fin- 
gers. Hannibal's friends advised him to follow the fugitives imme- 
diately to Rome, assuring him that in five days he might sup in the 
capitol ; but he did not think proper to attempt the siege of a city 
sheltered by walls and ramparts till he had formed alliances with the 
neighboring states. The battle of CannaB so changed the face of affairs, 
that the Carthaginians, who had been obliged to move from place to 
place, like a great band of robbers, now saw the best provinces of 
Italy in their power ; and Capua, the most considerable city, open to 
receive them. 

142. At Rome, nothing was heard but shrieks and lamentations ; 
one-third of the senators were slain ; one-half the city were in mourn- 
ing for their dearest friends; and an enemy, whose vindictive cruelty 
had been fully proved, was daily expected at their gates. Fabius 
alone walked about the city with an unruffled countenance, encourag- 
ing the magistrates, placing the guards, and adopting suitable precau- 
tions for the safety of the commonwealth. The people found in his 
judgment their temple, their altar, and their hope; and from his calm 
demeanor seemed to gather new resolution and confidence. When 
Varro arrived, the senate, instead of reprimanding him for his rash- 
ness, went out to meet him, and returned him thanks that he had not 
despaired of the safety of Rome. Hannibal did not come on as they 
had expected ; and inspired with fresh courage, they enlisted slaves, 
and made all possible preparations for another campaign. 

143. Fabius the shield, and Marcellus the sword, of Rome, were 
appointed to lead her armies; and though Hannibal offered peace 
it was refused, but upon condition that he should quit Italy. This 
general took up his winter quarters in Campania. In the fertile vales 
of that state a new scene of pleasure opened to his soldiers, which 
served to destroy the energies of barbarians unaccustomed to any lux- 

Questio?is. — 140. What became of Emilius ? 141. How many did the Eomans lose in this 
engagement? How many gold rings were sent to Carthage? To what did Hannibal's 
friends advise him? Why did he not act as advised? 142. What then was tb* condition 
of Rome? In the emergency, who alone was found able to advise? How was Varro 
received by the Eomans? 143. Who were appointed to lead the Eomans in the next chu* 
paign? Who made proposals of peace ? Where was Campania? (Map No. 4.) 
10* 



370 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 214 

nry. Though Rome had lost four important battles, she could yet 
bring into the field four times as many men as Hannibal. Marcellus, 
who often engaged in skirmishes, gained frequent advantages, while 
Fabius straitened the movements of the Carthaginian general, and, like 
a constant stream, undermined all his defenses. 

144. The Romans, however, do not deserve all the credit of the ruin 
of Hannibal. He received his first fatal blow from his friends. His 
glory had made enemies for him in the councils of Carthage ; the men 
he required were not sent ; and the supplies that he demanded did not 
arrive. For years he carried on the unequal conflict, sometimes 
advancing, sometimes retreating, frequently destitute of money and 
provisions, and feeling that the desperate game which lie was playing 
must finally turn against him, through the envy and ingratitude of his 
countrymen. After the Romans had gained the city of Tarentum, he 
acknowledged to his friends that he had always thought it difficult, 
and now saw it impossible, with the forces he had, to conquer Italy. 

145. The senate of Carthage at length came to the resolution of 
sending his brother, Asdrubal, to his assistance with a body of forces. 
Asdrubal landed in Italy without accident ; but the Romans sur- 
rounded him in a defile, into which he had been led by the treachery 
of his guides, and cut his whole army into pieces. Hannibal had long 
waited for these succors with great impatience ; he was assured that 
his brother was on his way, and the very night that he expected to 
embrace him with renewed hope, Asdrubal's head was thrown into 
his camp by the Romans! He saw in the bloody relic the downfall 
of Carthage, and observed with a sigh to those around him, "Fortune 
6eems fatigued with granting her favors." 

146. Siege of Syeacuse. — But it was not in Italy alone that for- 
tune frowned upon the Carthaginians. The unconquerable Romans, 
though surrounded with enemies at home, and still bleeding from their 
defeat at Cannse, sent legions into Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily, and 
undertook a new war against Philip, king of Macedon, for having 
made a league with Hannibal. Marcellus, who had charge of the war 
in Sicily, led his forces against Syracuse. There, for a long time, he 
found all his efforts baffled by the arts of one man. This man was 
Archimedes, the great mathematician. He was the kinsman of Hiero, 

Questions.— 143. What successes did Marcellus and Fabius gain? 144. From whom did 
Hannibal receive his first fatal blow? Give an account of Hannibal's " ups and downs." 
145. Who at last was sent to the aid of Hannibal? Give an account of Asdrubal's misfor- 
tune. What was done, with his head ? 146. Where, beside Italy, did fortune frown upon 
the Carthaginians? Against what place did Marcellus lead his forces? Who, for a time, 
baffled him ? Give an account of Archimedes. 



B. c. 212.] SECOND PUNIC WAR. 3J[ 

the king of whom we have spoken as giving occasion to the first Punic 
war, and in conversation, had assured his royal patron, that with a 
fulcrum and lever he could move the world* To prove so startling 
an assertion, he drew upon land the king's loaded galleys by a machino 
turned with one hand. 

147. Hiero, astonished at the force of his art, prevailed upon Archi- 
medes to make for him all sorts of engines which could be used in a 
siege, for attack or defense. These machines, which had lain inactive 
during the life of Hiero, were now brought out, and employed with 
great effect by the inventor. "When Archimedes began to play his 
engines, the Romans stood aghast with terror. All sorts of missile 
weapons, and stones of an enormous size, were sent forth with such 
noise and rapidity that nothing could stand before them. Huge 
beams were on a sudden projected over the walls, which, striking the 
galleys, sunk them at once ; sometimes burning glasses lighted mys- 
terious flames in the sails; and sometimes a sort of iron crow with 
two claws, let down by a lever, caught hold of the ships, drew them 
towards the walls, whirled them about, and dashed them against the 
rocks ; so that the fear of this one man haunted them continually. 
Finally, the Romans were so terrified, that if they saw a stick put over 
the walls, they cried out that Archimedes was leveling some machine 
at them, and fled in dismay. 

148. Marcellus desisted for a time from his efforts against Syracuse, 
but employed himself, meanwhile, in overrunning the island, and sub- 
duing smaller cities. Then returning, he seized the town by surprise 
one night, when the citizens had drunk to intoxication in honor of 
Diana. Archimedes was in his study, absorbed in his scientific 
researches, when the Romans entered ; nor did he perceive that the 
city was taken till a soldier entered his room, and commanded him to 
follow him into the presence of Marcellus. Archimedes requested 
him to wait till he had finished his problem, upon which the soldier 

* So engaged was Archimedes with mathematics, that he neglected his meat and drink. 
He was often carried by force to the bath, and, when there, amused himself with drawing 
geometrical figures in the ashes, or marking lines with his fingers upon his body when it was 
anointed. A jeweler had made a crown for Hiero ; but the king, suspecting that it had been 
fraudulently alloyed with silver, set Archimedes to examine into the affair. Archimedes 
thought upon the subject along time in vain. One day in the bath, perceiving that his 
body displaced a quantity of water equal to its bulk, the doctrine of specific gravity 
untolded at once before his mind. Transported with joy, he ran out into the street, crying 
out Eureka I Eureka ! " I have found it ! I have found it I" Then, by comparing the specific 
gravities of gold and silver, he detected the che;it of the jeweler. 

Questions. — 146, 147, 14S. What assurance did he give to Hiero ? What means did the 
people of Syracuse use for defense ? What is said of the fear produced among the Komans ? 
By what surprise was the city finally taken ? What caused the death of Archimedes? 



372 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. a 210. 

drew his sword and killed him. Marcellus, much grieved, ordered his 
body to be honorably buried, and a tomb erected to his memory. 
This monument has ages since mingled with the dust, but the simple 
instrument, Archimedes' 1 8 screic, still survives, and interests every philo- 
sophical student in the history of its great inventor. Marcellus, on 
his return, was made consul a fifth time, and again went to fight with 
Hannibal. With a small detachment, he fell into an ambuscade and 
was slain. 

149. Soipio Africantts. — The Romans also suffered some severe 
reverses in Spain. Two of the Scipios were slain, but that youth who 
saved his father's life at the Ticinium, being appointed to the pro- 
consulship in that country, though but twenty-four years old, soon 
retrieved these losses. He was superior to Hannibal in tenderness 
and generosity, and won the hearts of as many by his affability and 
justice as by force of arms. Spain and Sicily were subdued, but Han- 
nibal still maintained his ground in Italy, unsupported at home, and 
but little aided by the alliances he had formed. For fourteen years 
he had sustained himself by the most skillful management, and the 
most judicious plans. He had never lost a battle, and his terror was 
upon his enemies; but his old army was worn out; and while the 
Roman youth were growing up, eager to distinguish themselves against 
the Carthaginians, his friends and followers were dying about him of 
fatigue or excess. 

150. In this posture of affairs Publius Scipio returned from the con- 
quest of Spain, and was made consul at the age of 29. With the fore- 
sight of an older person, he determined to carry the war into Africa, 
and make the Carthaginians tremble for their own city. Scipio had 
not been long in Africa, when accounts were brought to Rome of his 
glorious and wonderful achievements. A Numidian king was taken 
prisoner, and two camps were burned and destroyed. Rich spoils 
confirmed these cheering reports. The Carthaginians were so ter- 
rified by these repeated defeats, that they sent a positive command to 
Hannibal, their great champion, to return and defend Carthage. He 
obeyed the mandate with a sad foreboding of calamity, and took leave 
of Italy with tears, after having kept possession of its most beautiful 
portions more than fifteen years. In that country he had lost his two 

Questions. — 14S. By whom was he mourned ? What still survives to tell the philosophi- 
cal student that Archimedes lived? What became of Marcellus? 149. What losses did the 
Eomans suffer in Spain? What is said of Scipio Africanus ? Of Hannibal's long success in 
Italy? Of his decreasing army? 150. How old was Publius Scipio when hetsas made 
consul ? What success had he previously attained ? What resolution as regards Africa did 
he determine upon ? AVhat success did he have in Africa? Why was Hannibal recalled 
home ? What were his feelings upon leaving Italy ? 



B.C. 200.] SECOND PUNIC WAR. 373 

brothers, his bravest generals, and most of those soldiers who had 
shared his toils and dangers from earliest youth. 

151. After a melancholy passage he arrived in Africa, and marched 
toward Zama, a city within five days' journey of Carthage. Scipio led 
his army on to meet him ; and to show how much he felt his superi- 
ority, sent back the spies of Hannibal, with a full account of all his 
preparations. Unwilling to risk every thing upon a single battle, Han- 
nibal invited Scipio to an interview. It was in an extensive plain 
between the armies that the two greatest generals in the world met, 
and silently regarded each other for a time with mutual reverence. 
Hannibal, dark, swarthy, one-eyed, with the sternness of the old war- 
rior upon his features ; Scipio, in the prime of life, with all the energy 
and vigor of the Roman beaming in every look. The arguments which 
Hannibal adduced in favor of a peace, Scipio said he would have 
regarded had they been proposed in Italy ; and both, parting dissatis- 
fied, prepared to decide the controversy by the sword. 

152. Battle of Zama. b. o. 202. — The battle of Zama was one of 
the bloodiest recorded in history. Hannibal" conducted the charge 
with the greatest skill ; but Scipio's army, composed of the flower of 
Roman youth, was far superior in numbers and discipline to the worn-out 
Carthaginians and their allies. The Romans were victorious, and Han- 
nibal fled. The conquerors dictated the terms of peace, as sovereigns. 
The Carthaginians were to pay 10,000 talents; to give hostages for the 
delivery of their ships and elephants; to restore to Hasinissa, the 
Numidian king, all his territories ; and they were not to make war, 
even in Africa, without permission of the Romans. 

153. b. o. 300. Spain, Africa, Macedonia, and Greece, 
made Roman Provinces. — Philip, king of Macedon, had attempted 
to make an alliance with Hannibal while he was in Italy. The 
war which resulted in Greece was still going on, and in the begin- 
ning of this century the Macedonian monarch was defeated several 
times by Galba, the Roman consul. He was compelled to raise the 
siege of Athens; was driven from the straits of Thermopylae by Fla- 
minius; was again defeated at Cynocephale, and forced to conclude an 
inglorious peace. Ten commissioners, with Flaminius at their head, 
attended the Isthmian games, and gave to each Grecian state the 
power of making its own laws. 

Questions.— 151. Where did Hannibal and Scipio meet? In what way did Scipio show 
his feeling of superiority? Give an account of the conference. 152. When was the battlo 
of Zama fought? Give an account of it. What terms of peace were dictated ? 153. Wh« 
attempted to make an alliance with Hannibal while in Italy? What defeats did the Mace 
donian monarch experience? What was he at last compelled to do? What power was 
given by the ten commissioners to the Grecian states ? 



37tt COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 183. 

154. The next enemy of consequence who interfered with the 
Romans was Antiochus the Great. Against him Scipio, brother of 
the famous Africanus, was sent with the Roman legions. The ill-con- 
certed manner in which Antiochus conducted his expedition has been 
already described. Scipio drove him out of Europe, defeated him in 
Asia, and obtained from his success the surname of Asiaticus. The 
proud successor of Alexander was glad to procure peace of the Romans, 
on condition of paying 15,000 talents; giving hostages of fidelity; and 
surrendering Hannibal,* who had been some time a resident at his 
court. 

155. In the third year after the war with Antiochus, the tribunes 
of the people accused Scipio Africanus of defrauding the treasury, and 
set a day for his trial. Scipio came at the appointed time, and listened 
to the charges with a serene air. Instead, however, of attempting a 
defense, he reminded his countrymen that on that very day, 15 years 
before, he had won the battle of Zama. The assembly rose at once, 
left the tribunes in the forum, and attended Scipio to the capitol, to 
return their annual thanks to the gods for this victory. Scipio after- 
wards retired to Campania, and spent the short remnant of his days 
in peace and privacy — testifying his displeasure against his country- 
men only by this epitaph, which he ordered to be engraved upon his 
tomb: u Ungrateful country — my very bones shall not rest among 
you." Hannibal, Philopcemen, and Scipio died the same year, b. c. 
183. The Second Macedonian war next engaged the Roman arms. 
Emilius overthrew Perseus, and carried him in triumph to Rome, to 

* The misfortunes of this illustrious man now drew to their tragical close. All that could 
be done for Carthage he had done, even after the battle of Zama. His ungrateful country- 
men, hating any check upon their vices, accused him to the Romans of intriguing to renew 
the. war. To escape the fate of a captive he left Carthage, and began his voluntary exile. 
He sailed to Tyre, and thence found his way to the Syrian court, where he was kindly 
received, and made admiral of the fleet. Here his skill and sagacity were exercised to 
destroy the Romans; but when fortune turned against his patron, and he found his name in 
the articles of treaty, he fled again to the king of Bithynia. He lived with Prusias five- 
years; the Romans, however, having sent a demand for him, he again became a wanderer. 
Finding that the envoys of Rome were ever on his track, he desired one of his followers to 
bring him poison, saying, u Let us rid the Romans of their terrors, since they are unwilling 
to wait for the death of an old man like me." The poison operated speedily, and Rome was 
freed from the fear of her greatest enemy. 

Questions. — 154. Who was the next enemy that interfered with the Romans? Who was 
sent against him? What success attended Scipio? To what terms of peace did the suc- 
cessor of Alexander submit ? What interesting account is related of Hannibal in the note ? 
155. What accusation was brought against Scipio? By whom were the charges made' 
How were they punished for their ingratitude? Where did Scipio die? What was his 
epitaph? In what year did he die? W T hen did Hannibal die? What war next engaged 
the Roman arms? Who overthrew Perseus? To what was Perseus subject? 



B.C. 149.] THIRD PUNIC WAR. 375 

walk before his chariot. These conquests brought immense riches intc 
the Roman treasury, and Macedon became a Roman province. 

156. b. c. 149. Thied Punic Wae. — About this time, Masinissa, 
king of Numidia, made some incursions upon the territory claimed by 
the Carthaginians. This people, having recovered in some measure 
from the effects of their wars, repelled the invasion. Oato the Censor, 
then nearly 90, was sent into Africa to inquire into the cause of the 
infraction of the treaty. "When he arrived at Carthage, he found that 
city not in the exhausted and humbled condition which the Ro- 
mans imagined, but full of men fit to bear arms; well supplied with 
money and warlike stores, and in a fair way to regain all its former 
greatness. Having made these observations he returned home, and 
represented to the senate the necessity of humbling a power which 
might once more involve Rome in a long and dangerous contest for 
empire. So fixed was this persuasion in his mind, that he never gave 
his opinion in the senate, upon any point whatever, without adding, 
"And my opinion is that Carthage should be destroyed;" so that 
" Carthago delenda est " passed into a proverb. Moved by his repre- 
sentations, the senate ordered war to be proclaimed, and the consuls 
set out with a resolution to destroy the ancient rival of Rome. 

157. The Carthaginians too late perceived the wisdom of Hannibal 
in insisting upon public measures, rather than private interest. Now- 
alarmed by the Roman preparations, they punished those who had 
quarreled with Masinissa, and most humbly offered satisfaction. The 
senate demanded 300 hostages within 30 days. To their surprise and 
regret, the Carthaginians sent their children within the given time; 
and soon after the consuls lauded at Utica, deputies waited upon 
them to know what further the senate might require. The consuls, 
who had express directions to destroy Carthage, were not a little per- 
plexed at this ready submission. They now, however, demanded the 
arms of the Carthaginians. These also were delivered up. The Car- 
thaginians were then ordered to leave their city, and build another in 
any part of their territories within ten miles of the sea. The deputies 
employed tears and lamentations to gain a respite from so hard a sen- 
tence ; the consuls were inexorable ; and with heavy hearts they 
departed, to bear the gloomy tidings to their countrymen. 

158. The unfortunate Carthaginians, finding that the conquerors 

Questions. — 155. How did these conquests affect Rome and Macedon ? 156. Who at that 
time encroached upon the Carthaginian territory? How did the Numidian king fare? 
What report did the aged Cato bring from Africa? What was his advice to the Romans ? 
Was the advice taken? 157. What demands did the Carthaginians comply with? Whut 
movement, at last, were the Carthaginians ordered to mak*.: ? 



376 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 146 

would not desist from making demands while they had any thing left 
to supply, prepared to resist with all the energy of despair. Those 
vessels of gold and silver which ministered to their pride were con- 
verted into arms. The women parted with their ornaments for this 
sacred purpose, and even cut off their hair to make bow-strings. A 
general whom they had a short time before condemned for opposing 
the "Romans was taken from prison to lead their army ; every thing 
was done which prudence could suggest or ingenuity devise; so that 
when the consuls arrived before the city, which they expected to find 
an easy conquest, they met with such resistance as quite dispirited 
their forces. Several engagements were fought before the walls, in 
which the assailants were repulsed ; and the Romans would have been 
compelled to retreat, with loss and dishonor, but for the gallant con- 
duct of the son of Emilius (adopted son of Scipio Africanus). By his 
skill in drawing off his forces after a defeat, and his talent at inspiring 
new hopes, he quieted the murmurs which had arisen in the camp. 

159. Pharneas, master of the Carthaginian horse, thinking his coun- 
try absolutely ruined, deserted to the Romans; and Scipio cut off all 
supplies by land at the same time that he blockaded the harbor and 
stopped all relief by sea. He soon after killed 70,000 men and took 
10,000 prisoners, and, having forced one of the gates, advanced to the 
forum. Great numbers fled to the citadel, and Scipio took possession 
of a city filled with heaps of dead and dying. Famine compelled the 
refugees in the citadel to surrender; the Carthaginian general gave 
himself up; but a few of the most resolute perished in the flames of 
the temple. This magnificent city, 24 miles in compass, was then set 
on fire by the merciless conquerors, and continued burning 17 days.* 
The walls were demolished ; the lands given to the friends of the Ro- 
mans ; the slaves prepared for the market ; and the consuls, having 
completed their work of destruction, struck their tents, and returned 
home in triumph, b. o. 146. 

160. In the same year, Corinth, one of the cities of the Achsean 
League, having made war upon the Lacedemonians, was sentenced to 
the same fate. So rich were its temples and dwellings, that it is said 

* Though Scipio was obliged by the orders of the senate to demolish the walls of Car- 
thage, yet he wept bitterly over the tragical scene, expressing his fears that Rome would at 
6ome future day perish in a similar conflagration. 

Questio7is. — 158. What course did they then determine upon ? What preparations were 
made? Give an account of the siege. 159. Who deserted to the Romans ? Give tbe par- 
ticulars of Scipio 1 s successes. Of the result of the siege. In what year was Carthage 
destroyed? Where was Carthage? (See map No. 1.) 160. In what year was Corinth de- 
stroyed ? Who destroyed it ? What is said of the richness of Corinth ? 



B. c. 133.] THE GRACCHII. 377 

Corinthian brass became additionally precious from quantities of silver 
and gold melted down with it. Spain was soon after entirely sub- 
dued, and the Romans from this time began to look upon the world 
as their own, and to treat all who withstood their arms as revolters. 
The triumphs and spoils of Greece, Syria, Spain, and Africa intro- 
duced a taste for splendid expense ; the ancient modesty, plainness, 
and severity of the Romans were exchanged for avarice, luxury, and 
ostentation ; and corruption commenced its work in the common- 
wealth. 

161. The Geacohii. — Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus, and 
wife of Tiberius Gracchus, was left a widow with twelve children, all 
of whom died young except three. To these children she devoted 
herself with so much parental affection and greatness of mind, that 
though her sons were gifted above all their Roman contemporaries, 
education was said to have contributed more to their perfections than 
nature. A lady who once visited her, having displayed her jewels, 
desired to see Cornelia's. She evaded the request till the return of 
her children from school, and then presenting Tiberius and Caius to 
her visitor, exclaimed, " These are my jewels." And well did her 
children reward her care. Her daughter was married to Scipio the 
Younger, of whom we have already spoken ; and her sons, beautiful, 
wiso, eloquent, and virtuous, sacrificed their lives in attempting to 
stem the corruptions of the state, and preserve to Rome the freedom 
and simplicity which had given the world to her arms. Indeed, Cor- 
nelia is blamed for the untimely fate of her sons, because she fostered 
their ambition. Plutarch says, that she used to reproach her sons 
that she was called the mother-in-law of Scipio, rather than the mother 
of the Gracchii. 

162. The first public act of Tiberius was an attempt to revive the 
Licinian law, which forbade any person to possess more than 500 acres 
of land. The distinctions, patrician and plebeian, had faded away into 
the still more obnoxious classification, rich and poor. The poor, who 
perceived at once the benefit to themselves of this law, sustained Tibe- 
rius, and inflamed his spirit by acclamations and blessings; the rich, 
who were thus called upon to surrender a part of their ill-gotten gains, 
opposed him, and represented that he desired to overthrow the con- 
stitution. But the eloquent Tiberius easily silenced their invectives. 
The people gathered about him when he ascended the rostrum, and 

Qxie$tion&— 160. What country next fell under the power of Rome ? What change took 
place in the taste, habits, and honesty of the Romans? 161. Relate the story of Cornelia. 
162. What was the first public act of Tiberius ? What distinctions had faded away ? lute 
what were they merged ? What course did Tiberius pursue? 



378 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 123 

pleaded for the poor in language such as this: u The wild beasts of 
Italy have their caves to retire to, but the brave men who spill their 
blood in her cause have nothing left but air and light. Without any 
settled habitations, they wander from place to place with their wives 
and children; and their generals do but mock them when, at the head 
of their armies, they exhort them to fight for their sepulchers and 
domestic gods ; for, among such numbers, there is not perhaps a Ro- 
man who has an altar that belonged to his ancestors, nor a sepulcher 
in which their ashes rest." 

163. By these speeches were the minds of the poor inflamed ; debate 
ripened into enmity, and enmity into sedition. The law was passed ; 
but Gracchus had made himself too conspicuous to escape the malice 
of the rich. Attalus, king of Pergamus, dying, made the Roman peo- 
ple his heirs. Tiberius found here another opportunity to gratify his 
followers. He proposed that the money so left should be distributed 
among the poor for the purchase of farming utensils. This bill pro- 
duced greater disturbances than the other. Tiberius spoke eloquently 
in its favor, but the patricians excited a mob, and one of the tribunes 
struck the orator dead with a piece of a seat. Not less than 300 of 
his followers shared a similar fate ; many were banished ; some put to 
death by the public execution ; and all who supported his measures 
were found guilty of sedition. 

164. Caius Gracchus. — Caius, the other son of Cornelia, w T ho was 
but twenty-one at the time of his brother's death, refrained from all 
interference in political affairs for many years. During this time he 
filled the office of qua3stor in Sardinia, and discharged his duties with 
such ability that the king of Numidia, sending a present of corn to 
the Romans, ordered his embassadors to say that it was a tribute to 
the virtues of Caius Gracchus. The senate treated the embassy with 
contempt ; and Gracchus, stung by the indignity, returned from the 
army and offered himself for tribune. The rich united their forces to 
oppose him, but crowds came from all parts of Italy to support his 
election ; and the Campus Martius not being large enough to contain 
them, they gave their votes from the tops of houses. Being elected 
by a very large majority, he prepared to avenge the death of Tiberius, 
and carry out those reforms which would throw the weight of govern 
ment into the popular scale. 

165. He procured the banishment of Pompilius, one of the murder- 

Quesiion*. — 162. What arguments did he use ? 163. Give a history of events until the 
death of Tiberius. How was he killed ? What then followed? 164. What was the name 
of the remaining son of Cornelia ? What is said of the present of corn ? Why did Caius offer 
himself for tribuiu- '? Give an account of his election. 165. What measures did he then take ? 



B. c. 112.] THE JUGURTHINE WAR. 3?9 

ers of his brother; he secured the passage of an edict by which the 
price of corn was fixed at a moderate standard, and monthly distribu- 
tions made to the poor — a measure which brought all the paupers in 
Italy to Rome. With his associate tribunes, he then proceeded to 
inspect the corruptions of the senate; and that body being found 
guilty of bribery, extortion, and the sale of offices, the power of judg- 
ing magistrates was transferred to three hundred knights, chosen for 
the purpose. The senators now hated him more than ever; and Scipio 
the Younger, who had opposed the measures of Gracchus, being found 
dead in his bed, it was whispered about that Gracchus had murdered 
his own brother-in-law. To escape the odium thus heaped upon him, 
Gracchus procured a decree for rebuilding Carthage, and went him- 
self with 6,000 families to Africa. Several unfavorable omens, how- 
ever, dampened the zeal of the adventurers, and he returned to Italy 
within seventy days. Here he joined the party of Flaccus, in an 
attempt to pass the Agrarian law, and went with an armed crowd to 
the capitol. High words and blows ensued, and a lictor was slain. 

166. Flaccus and Gracchus were summoned to appear before the 
senate and answer for the murder. Instead of obeying the citation, 
they took possession of Mount Aventine, with a body of adherents, 
and proclaimed liberty to all the slaves who would join their party. 
This was considered open rebellion, and the consul immediately 
surrounded the place with his forces. Flaccus was taken prisoner 
and dragged to execution, while Gracchus made his escape across 
the Tiber. He took refuge in a grove dedicated to the Furies, 
where he prevailed upon a slave to dispatch him.* Thus died Caius 
Gracchus, about ten years after his brother Tiberius; and thus by 
ambitious lives and untimely deaths did the children of Cornelia so 
distinguish themselves, that to this day she is styled "the mother of 
the Gracchii." 

167. Juguethine War. — Micipsa, king of Numidia, an ally of the 
Romaus, had brought up his nephew, Jugurtha, with his own sons, 
Hiempsal and Adherbal. At his death he divided the kingdom equally 
among the three boys. Jugurtha murdered Hiempsal, and was pre- 
paring to seize Adherbal, when the young prince escaped to Rome, 

* The consul bad offered its weight in gold for the head of Gracchus. The soldier who 
found his body cut off his head, carefully abstracted the brains, filled the cavity with lead, 
and received seventeen lbs. of gold for it. 

Questions. — 165, 166. What is stated of Scipio the Younger ? Give an account of the 
enterprise Gracchus then undertook. Of his connection with Flaccus. Of his death. How 
is Cornelia still styled? 167. Who was Micipsa? How was the Jugurthine war com 
meneed? Where was Numidia? (See map No. 4.) 



380 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 89 

and laid his cause before the senate. Jugurtha, however, by rich 
bribes, turned aside the sword of justice, so that the successors of 
those men who would not look upon the presents of Pyrrhus, pocketed 
the gold of the wily African, and sent over commissioners to divide 
Numidia between him and the surviving son of Micipsa. Emboldened 
in crime, Jugurtha made war upon Adherbal as soon as he was estab- 
lished in his government, took him prisoner, and put him to death. 
The homicide was summoned to Rome to stand a trial. His gold 
enabled him to elude his fate, and as he left the city he exclaimed, 
" Rome ! how readily wouldst thou sell thyself couldst thou find a 
man rich enough to purchase thee." 

168. Another act of treachery on the part of Jugurtha engaged the 
senate in a war with him, which lasted five years. The glory of ter- 
minating it fell to Caius Marius,* who fought a battle with the usur- 
per, and took him prisoner. Jugurtha followed in the triumph of 
Marius, and was afterwards starved to death in a dungeon. Thus 
ended the Jugurthine war, b. o. 106. Pompey and Cicero were born 
the same year. 

169. Marius and Sylla. — b. o. lOO. In the year 90 b. o., the 
states of Italy, having waited long in vain for the promised title and 
privileges of Roman citizens, united in an attempt to throw off their 
allegiance to Rome. This contest was marked by frequent and bloody 
battles; and during its progress Rome lost 300,000 lives. Marius and 
Syllat were both officers in the army, but, while the former daily lost 
popularity, the latter, by his free and easy manners, was gaining 
authority and friends. The Social War, as it was called, was finally 
terminated by concessions on the part of the Romans, which satisfied 
the allies. 

170. Mitheidatio War. — Mithridates, king of Pontus, was one of 
the most formidable enemies Rome ever encountered. He was distin- 

* Caius Marius was the son of poor parents in Arpi. He was a man of gigantic stature, 
great strength, and undaunted bravery. He was an enemy of the patricians, and conse- 
quently the idol of the people. In his first consulship he defeated Jugurtha; in his second, 
he enjoyed a triumph for having closed the war in Africa; and in four succeeding consul- 
ships distinguished himself by his bravery and cruelty. 

t Sylla was the son of a poor patrician, but gifted and ambitious. He took Jugurtha 
captive, and contended for the honor of terminating the war in Africa. For this Marius 
became his implacable enemy. Sylla espoused the patrician cause, and opposed the mea- 
sures of Marius with success. 

Questions. — 167, 168. Givo an account of its progress and end. When did it end? "Who 
were born that year? 169. What disturbances occurred in Italy about that time? Mention 
some particulars. How did the Social War terminate? 170. What is said of Mithridates? 
For what was he distinguished ? Where was Pontus ? (Map No. 3.) 



b. c. 88.] MARIUS AND SYLLA. 381 

guished in his early youth by his bodily strength and daring spirit; 
and in riper years by the sagacity of a statesman and the dignity of a 
monarch. He was also the greatest scholar of his time, being able to 
converse in twenty-two different languages. The Romans, in their 
wars with Antiochus and his successors, had overrun a great part of 
the east, and stationed troops in various parts. Mithridates, as sove- 
reign of Asia, commanded all the Roman legions to leaye his domin- 
ions; but, before they had time to do so, a dreadful massacre was 
commenced, in which 80,000 perished. The islands of the Egean, 
with Athens, and several other cities of Greece, joined the standard 
of revolt. 

171. To avenge the blood of her slaughtered citizens, to humble the 
power of Mithridates, and to bring back her provinces to their alle- 
giance, now occupied the attention of Rome. Sylla was consul, but, 
being absent from the city, Marius secured the appointment of com- 
mander in Asia. Sylla immediately marched to Rome with his army, 
crushed the opposite faction, drove Marius into banishment, restored 
the authority of the senate, and departed with his array for the east. 

172. Maeius. — Marius, at the age of seventy, having been declared 
a public enemy, escaped from his pursuers in the meanest disguise. 
Being driven into the marshes, he spent one night up to his chin in a 
quagmire. The next day he was taken and thrown into a prison. 
The governor of the place sent a Cambrian slave to dispatch him. As 
the assassin approached, Marius cried out in a stern voice, "Darest 
thou kill Caius Marius?" The barbarian threw down his sword, and, 
rushing out of the dungeon, declared he could not kill him ! The 
governor, thinking this an omen in the unhappy exile's favor, set him 
at liberty. After many toils and dangers, Marius landed in Africa, 
and, musing on the instability of earthly grandeur, went and seated 
himself among the ruins of Carthage. 

173. After wandering about for several months, like a wild beast 
hunted from his thicket, he heard that Cinna, the consul, had over- 
come the Syllian faction, upon which he sailed for Italy. Retaining 
the miserable robe which he had worn during his misfortunes, with 
untrimmed beard and solemn countenance, he went round among the 
smaller states, and having collected a horde of robbers and semi-bar- 
barians, approached Rome. The defenseless senate sent out embassa- 
dors to beg that matters might be accommodated in a peaceable man- 

Questions.— 170, 171. Give the origin of the Mithridatic war. Give an account of it. In 
what did it result? 172. What is 6aid of Marius at the age of seventy? Give an account 
of him until he arrived at Carthage. 173. 174. Give a further account, including of hia 
death. What is said of him by an historian ? 



382 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [n. c. 86 

ner. Marias seemed willing to grant their request, but said, that 
having been banished by a public decree, he could not enter the gates 
till it was revoked. The frightened citizens undertook to authorize 
his return, but scarcely had they begun to vote when he marched into 
the city, sword in hand, and massacred without remorse or pity all 
who had ever been obnoxious to him. His barbarians, infuriated by 
the sight of blood, rushed on like wolves to the carnage, sparing nei- 
ther age, sex, nor rank. 

174. For five days and nights the slaughter was continued; the 
streets of Kome were deluged with blood, and the grim monster, 
enjoying the miseries of his country, gazed with savage delight upon 
the heads which were ranged in the forum for his special gratification. 
When his vengeance was thus fully satisfied, he made himself consul 
for the seventh time, without the formalities of a public assembly. 
He, however, enjoyed the power he had enslaved his country to gain 
only seventeen days. Worn out with wars and excesses, his faculties 
began to fail ; and the intelligence that Sylla was returning with a 
victorious army, filled his mind with inquietude. u He died," says the 
historian, " with the chagrin of an unfortunate wretch who had not 
obtained what he wanted." 

175. Sylla. — When Sylla passed through Greece, on his way to 
meet Mithridates, every city except Athens sent tokens of submission. 
To this place, therefore, the Roman advanced with his troops. His 
impatience to return led him to push the siege with the greatest 
vigor. He used a multitude of warlike engines, and when wood failed, 
the sacred groves of the Academy and Lyceum fell beneath the sol- 
dier's ax. To supply his troops with money, he sent for the treasures 
of Delphi and Olympia, which the Amphictyons, with many tears, 
surrendered. Poor Athens, who had suffered so much from wars, 
tyrannies, and seditions, was now seized with her last agonies. Within 
was famine, without was the sword. The city was finally taken by a 
night assault. No computation can be made of the number of the 
slain ; but ancient writers tell us that the blood flowed through the 
gates, and overspread the suburbs. Sylla at length gave orders to 
stop the carnage, saying, that he "forgave the living for the sake of 
the dead." 

176. In Beotia, Sylla defeated the general of Mithridates, and, hav- 
ing concluded a peace with that renowned king, hastened home to 
meet again the Marian faction. No sooner had he landed in Italy, than 

Questions. — 175. "What is said of Sylla's march through Greece? Describe the fat^ of ua 
fortunate Athens. 176. What followed until Sylla entered Home a conqueror? 



B.C. 78.] DEATH OF SYLLA. 383 

the shattered remains of his party flocked to his standard ; Crassus 
and Pompey threw their influence upon his side, while Scipio and 
young Marius took the field against him. In a great battle that ensued, 
Marius was entirely defeated. The contest lasted till late at night, 
and the morning sun arose upon more than 50,000 bodies of victors 
and vanquished, promiscuously heaped in death. Sylla entered Romo 
like a conqueror, at the head of his army. Immediately after, he 
caused 8,000 of those he esteemed his enemies to be shut up in a large 
house and massacred, while he was addressing the people ; and when 
the senate, amazed at the horrid outcries of the victims, inquired if the 
city was given up to plunder, the vindictive consul informed them, 
with an unembarrassed air, that the sounds they heard were only the 
shrieks of some criminals who were punished by his order. 

177. The next day he proscribed forty senators and 1,600 knights; 
and so, day after day, the work of death went forward ; a public list 
of the doomed being made out, and a reward offered for the heads of 
those who succeeded for a time in eluding their pursuers. Sylla next 
depopulated those Italian states which had joined the Marian faction, 
and parceled out their lands among his veteran troops. The office of 
dictator, which had not been conferred upon any individual for 120 
years, he now assumed without limit as to time; and thus the govern- 
ment of Rome, having passed through the various forms of monarchy, 
aristocracy, and democracy, seemed settled at last in despotism. Cras- 
sus employed himself in buying up the effects of the proscribed ; Pom- 
pey put away his wife, to marry the dictator's step-daughter; and 
Julius Caesar, to evade a similar requisition, exiled himself from the 
city. Sylla spared his life, but remarked, " there are many Mariuses in 
Julius Caesar." 

178. How great was the surprise in Rome, when one day the san- 
guinary dictator appeared before the people, resigned his power, 
divested himself of his official robes, offered himself for public trial, 
and, sending away his lictors, continued to walk in the forum unat- 
tended and alone. At the approach of evening he retired to his 
house, the people following him in respectful silence. Of all that 
great multitude whom he had robbed of relatives and friends, not one 
was found hardy enough to reproach or accuse him ; his act of abdica- 
tion having, as it were, thrown a vail over the enormity of his crimes. 
He died not long after, at his country-seat, leaving the following 

Questions. — 176. Give an account of the massacre of the 8,000. 177. Give a further 
description of Sylla's path to power. How did Crassus employ himself? What wrong did 
Pompey commit? What mo rement did Julius Citsar make? 17S. What event crowned 
the public life of Sylla? Give the particulars. 



SS4: COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 67. 

inscription for his tomb : "Here lies Sylla, who was never out- 
done in good offices by a friend, nor in acts of hostility by bis 
enemy." 

179. Pompey's Exploits. — After the death of Sylla, several years 
of faction and animosity ensued, till finally the question of "who 
should be greatest" seemed to settle upon Crassus and Pompey; the 
former,* celebrated for his vast wealth, which he employed in feasting 
the multitude at public tables, and buying comforts for the poor ; the 
latter, distinguished by his splendid victories in Spain, by his address 
in terminating the Servile War,t and by his success in overcoming the 
Illyrian pirates. The consul Lucullus, the personal friend of Sylla, 
had been carrying on the war in Asia during eight years. Such was 
his vigor and ability, that Mithridates, after repeated defeats, was 
compelled to fly to his son-in-law, Tigranes, king of Armenia. Lucul- 
lus pursued him into that country, and gained two victories; but the 
mutinous disposition of his soldiers embarrassed his efforts, and his 
enemies at home persuaded the people that he protracted the war on 
account of the wealth to be gained from it, and he was consequently 
recalled. J 

180. At this juncture the friends of Pompey proposed a law, " That 
all the armies of the empire, with the government of all Asia, and the 
management of the war against Mithridates, should be committed to 
him alone." The question was warmly discussed, and the motion 
would have been lost but for the eloquence of Cicero. The law was 
passed by all the tribes, and Pompey departed for Asia, b. o. 67. 
"When the Boman general arrived at the seat of war, he found that 
Mithridates had retrieved his losses, and secured the various passes 
and strongholds of the country. Pompey's first measure was to drive 
the enemy out of Asia Minor, by garrisoning all the maritime towns 
from Tyre to Byzantium. He then advanced to attack the camp of 

* Crassus had increased a small estate to the value of $7,500,000. 

t A company of gladiators broke away from their fencing-school, and, enlisting fugitive 
6laves, kept all Italy in alarm three years. This was called the "Servile War." Both 
Crassus and Pompey claimed the glory of terminating it. 

X The account of the wealth brought home by Lucullus seems almost incredible. He 
exhibited in his triumph a statue of Mithridates in massy gold ; and mules, loaded with 
ingots, followed his car. He took no part in public affairs after his return, but devoted him- 
Bclf to the adorning of his villas with all the curious works of science and art which he had 
collected in the east. It was nothing uncommon for him to spend $6,000 on one supper. 

Questions. — ITS. What inscription did he leave for his tomb? 179. Name the exploits 
of I'f mpey. Who was his rival ? For what was Crassus noted ? What is said of Lucullus 
in connection with the wars in Asia ? ISO. In what year did Pompey depart for Asia? Give 
the circumstances preceding his going. Follow him until Mithridates effects his escap* 
after the siege. 



b. c. 63.] CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. 385 

Mithridates in Armenia. The Pontian king stood a siege of forty-five 
days, and then effected a retreat. 

181. Pornpey overtook him again near the Euphrates. An engage- 
ment ensued by night. The Romans were victorious. Mithridates 
escaped with 800 horse, but no sooner did he reach the open plain, 
than even this small remnant fled, leaving him with only three attend- 
ants. At the castle of Inora the wretched fugitives stopped, and 
there Mithridates bestowed his treasures upon all who joined him, 
taking care to furnish each of his friends with a quantity of poison, 
that they need not fall alive into the hands of the enemy. The unfor- 
tunate monarch, hearing that his son-in-law had made alliance with 
the Romans, directed his flight to Colchis ; Pompey pursued him ; and 
the king, finding everywhere the terror of the Roman name, sought 
shelter among the barbarous Scythians. 

182. After two years 1 war with these savage tribes, without gaining 
any tidings of his enemy, Pompey turned his face to the south, ani- 
mated, like Alexander, with the hope of extending his conquests to 
the ocean which surrounds the world. Having subdued Syria, he 
entered Judea. Aristobulus, the usurping priest, converted the vene- 
rable temple at Jerusalem into a citadel for his soldiers, and resisted 
the power of the Romans three months : 12,000 Jews were slain, and 
the place was finally taken. Pompey entered the sanctuary with 
mingled curiosity and reverence ; he even ventured into the Holy of 
Holies, and gazed upon those sacred mysteries which none but the 
high-priests were ever permitted to behold. Respecting, however, the 
feelings of the Jews, he left the holy things unprofaned ; and having 
restored Hyrcanius to the priesthood, pursued his way to Arabia 
Petraea. In the course of his march he had received the submission 
of twelve kings. 

183. b. v. 63. — Catiline's Conspiracy. — While Pompey was thus 
extending the empire of Rome over all the eastern world, the com- 
monwealth had been brought to the brink of ruin by the machinations 
of a few dissolute noblemen, who, having " wasted their fortunes with 
riotous living," were determined to revolutionize the government, 
seize the lucrative offices, and reign together, each a Sylla. At the 
head of the conspiracy was Lucius Catiline, a patrician of the most 
fascinating manners, the most daring courage, and the most diabolical 

Questions.— 181. Give an account of the defeat and escape of Mithridates. Of his escape 
to the Scythians. 182. With what ambition was Pompey animated ? What success did he 
have in Syria? What in Judea? How many kings had submitted to him? 1S3. How, 
meanwhile, had Eome been brought to the brink of ruin ? Who was at the head of the con- 
spiracy ? * 
11 



386 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 63 

cruelty. In the bloody scenes of his youth he took an active part ; 
having been quaestor to Sylla, to please whom he murdered his own 
brother. Associated with him were many persons of rank and for- 
tune. Lentulus and Cethegus, members of distinguished families; the 
two Syllas, nephews of the dictator; and others, of equal celebrity, 
were leaders of the plot. 

184. It was proposed to enlist the veterans of Sylla, and the frag- 
ments of his party about Italy ; to kill the whole senate, and set the 
city on fire in a huudred places at once; while Catiline, coming down 
from Etruria with his army, should subdue the minor towns, and take 
military possession of Italy. As a preparatory measure, Cicero, the 
consul, was to be assassinated in his bed. Scarcely, however, was 
this plan of action settled by the conspirators, when every-particular 
was related to Cicero by a woman who had persuaded her lover to 
reveal the secret. The consul immediately convened the senate, and 
warned them of the impending danger. Catiline also took his accus- 
tomed seat with that august body, and, asserting his innocence, offered 
securities for his good behavior. 

185. Cicero, however, assailed him with a torrent of invective ; and 
the guilty Catiline, after vainly endeavoring to counteract the effect 
of the orator's eloquence, rushed out of the senate-house, threatening 
destruction to all that opposed him. He left the city that night to 
bring his army to the gates of Rome. Cicero secured the other con- 
spirators, and, having obtained sentence against them, caused them to 
be strangled in prison. Catiline, hearing that his accomplices were no 
more, attempted to fly, but, finding that the passes were all secured, 
lie turned like a lion at bay upon his pursuers. A fierce battle was, 
fought in Etruria. Catiline died sword in hand, and most of his fol- 
lowers imitated his example. The praises of Cicero were now the 
theme of every panegyrist, and, by the advice of Cato, he was styled 
the "Father of his Country." 

186. Pompey's Triumph. — To return to Pompey. Scarcely had he 
pitched his camp in Petrsea, when he received the following letter 
from Asia Minor : " Mithridates is dead. He killed himself upon 
the revolt of his son, Pharnaces. Pharnaces has seized all that 
belonged to his father, which he declares he has done for himself and 

Questions. — 183. What is said of the deeds of his youth ? Who were associated with Cati- 
line in the conspiracy? 1S4. In what way was it proposed to carry out the conspiracy? 
What proposition is mentioned as a preparatory measure? How was the plot discovered ? 
What steps were immediately taken? What course did Catiline take? 185. Give an 
account of the overthrow of the conspiracy. By what title was Cicero afterward known? 
186.»What put an end to the war in Asia? 






b. c. 60.] THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. 387 

the Romans. 1 '* The campaign being thus terminated, the soldiers 
gave loose to their joy, and Porapey made arrangements for settling 
immediately the affairs of Asia, and returning home with the laurels 
of a conqueror. 

187. Rome had scarcely recovered from the distress into which the 
conspiracy of Catiline had thrown her, when she was again agitated 
by the intelligence that Pompey, like Sylla, was returning at the head 
of his victorious legions. The alarm of the senate was, however, 
changed to admiration when the conqueror of Mithridates arrived at 
Brundusium, and, disbanding his army, journeyed to Rome in the 
humble garb of a private individual. The whole city met him with 
acclamations; a triumph was immediately decreed, and never had 
Rome witnessed such grandeur and magnificence as were then dis- 
played. Captive princes walked in his train ; treasures and trophies 
adorned his chariot ; and a sum of money equal to $18,000,000 was 
deposited in the treasury of the commonwealth. 

188. He soon after erected a temple to Minerva, with an inscription 
containing a summary of his deeds. He said that "he had finished a 
war of thirty years; had vanquished, slain, and taken 2,183,000 men; 
sunk or taken 846 ships; reduced 1,538 towns and fortresses, and sub- 
dued all the countries between Lake Moeris and the Red Sea." He 
had before extended his conquests in Africa to the Great Sea, and 
stretched the Roman dominions in Spain to the Atlantic ; his first 
triumph had been for Africa, his second for Europe, and now his third 
was for Asia ; so that when he threw aside his armor, and clothed 
himself in the unostentatious robe of a Roman citizen, he deserved, 
both for his achievements and his moderation, the title of Pompey the 
Geeat. 

189. First Teiumvirate.— b. o. 60. Pompey was the most power- 
ful man in Rome, and the idol of the army. Crassus was the richest 
man in the state, and a favorite of the senate. Both were candidates 

* After Pompey's departure, Mithridates returned to Pontus, and made himself master 
of several places; Pharnaces, however, rebelled against him, in favor of the Romans. The 
unhappy king sent to his son, offering to resign the crown if he would aid him in making 
his escape. The unnatural son bade the slave to tell his father that death was now all that 
remained for him. Thus cut off from every hope, the wretched monarch assembled his 
wives, and, presenting a cup of poison, bade them choose between death and captirity. To- 
gether they drank the fatal draught, and together they died in the palace of the Pontian 
kings. 

Questions.— 187. What intelligence distressed the Romans? How was the distress 
changed to admiration? Give an account of Pompey's reception. 1S8. W T hat temple is 
spoken of? What inscription ? What deeds were enumerated ? What further is stated 
of Pompey ? 189. Who then was the most powerful man in Rome? Who the richest? Ih 
what vear was the first triumvirate established? 



388 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME.. [b. c. 58 

for the highest offices of the republic. At this juncture, when the 
suffrages of the Roman people seemed vibrating between the two strong 
attractions of gold and glory, Julius Cresar* returned from his praetor- 
ship in Spain. It was the time for electing consuls, and, perceiving 
that if he gained the influence of one of these great men, he made the 
other his enemy of course, he set about reconciling them. Having 
procured an interview between the rivals, he showed them the benefit 
of a union of interests, and finally engaged them in a combination, by 
which it was agreed that nothing should be done in the commonwealth 
without their mutual concurrence and approbation. This was called 
the First Triumvirate.! 

190. To cement this union, Ccesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage 
to Pompey, though she had long been affianced to Marcus Brutus ; 
and both Crassus and Pompey sustained the nomination of Ceesar for 
the consulship. He was successful, and then they ratified all his acts. 
The triumvirate next agreed to share the world between them. Pom- 
pey chose Spain and Italy ; for, being already at the pinnacle of mili- 
tary fame, he wished to remain in Rome. Crassus selected Syria and 
the East, because those provinces generally enriched their governors; 
and to Ca?sar were left the unconquered territories of the Gallic tribes ; 
but as these promised little more than a harvest of danger, his com- 
mand was granted for five years. 

191. The obedient senate and the misguided people sanctioned all 
these arrangements, and Caesar soon after marched to the north with 
six legions. During the summer, he pushed his conquests among the 
barbarous tribes inhabiting Gaul, Britain, and Germany ; and every 
winter he returned to Cisalpine Gaul, and passed the season very 
agreeably with friends who came from Rome to see him. At one 
time there were in his camp 120 lictors waiting upon their masters, 
and 200 senators honoring him with their assiduities. At the end of 
five years Crassus and Pompey visited him, and agreed to get his 

* This extraordinary man belonged to one of the most ancient and honorable families in 
Rome. His aunt, Julia, was the wife of Marius, and he himself married the daughter of 
Cinna. He was of a fair complexion, and delicate constitution; but ambition and early 
exposure enabled him to endure great fatigue. Such was his capacity for business, that he 
could dictate four letters at the same time. 

t Soon after the triumvirate was formed, Cicero was driven into exile for having put 
Catiline's accomplices to death, and Cato was sent on an expedition to Cyprus. 

Questions.— 189. What claims had the rival candidates for the suffrages of the people ? 
Who acted as conciliator? What combination was formed? 190. By what acts was the 
union cemented? What division of the world did the three aspirants make? Why was 
C;esar's portion the least enviable? What object had Crassus in going east? Why did 
Pompoy choose Spain and Italy? 191. What did the senate and people do? What con 
quests did Caesar make ? How did he secure his re-election ? 



b. c. 55.J POMPEY AND CAESAR. 389 

command continued five years longer, while he sent money to Rome 
to buy votes for their election to the consulship. 

192. b. o. 55. This year Crassus departed for the east. The people, 
who understood that he intended to make war upon their allies, the 
Parthians, were very much displeased ; and when he went out of the city 
one of the tribunes devoted him, and all who should follow him, to the 
infernal gods. Undismayed, however, by this dreadful denunciation, 
Crassus continued his course, and, landing in Asia Minor, soon overran 
all Mesopotamia. He plundered the temple at Jerusalem, and took up 
his winter quarters in Syria. The next spring he set out for Parthia, 
but, trusting an Arabian chief for guide, his forces were led over dry 
and sandy plains, where neither stream, nor plant, nor tree appeared ; 
and finally, surrounded by an active enemy in the midst of a hostile 
country, they all perished except Caius Cassius, and a band of 500 
horse. The head and right hand of Crassus were cut off, and sent to 
the Parthian king. 

193. Caesar extended the power of Rome far to the north. It would 
be tedious to enumerate all his exploits. Suffice it to say, that " in 
less than ten years he took 800 cities, conquered 300 nations, fought 
1,000 battles, killed 1,000,000 of men, took as many more prisoners, 
crossed over to Britain twice, and subdued all the tribes from the 
Mediterranean Sea to the German. Ocean." The laurels of Miltiades 
would not allow Themistocles to sleep; and the praises of Caesar had 
a similar effect upon Porapey. By the death of Crassus they were 
left the sole competitors for supreme authority; and the decease of 
Julia broke the tender tie which had bound them together. Pompey 
effected the recall of Cicero, gained the favor of the stern Cato, and, 
seeming to feel a deep anxiety for the welfare of the commonwealth, 
proposed that Caesar should be required to disband his army. 

194. Caesar's friends urged that the republic had more to fear from 
the unlimited authority of one, than from the conflicting interests of 
two, and therefore insisted that the rivals should both resign, or both 
retain their power; but Pompey, who was enjoying the dignity of sole 
consul, would not agree to this proposition. The senate, who were in 
Pompey's interest, passed a decree requiring Caesar to lay down his 
military power within a given time, under penalty of being declared 
an enemy to his country. Antony and Cassivs vetoed the MIL The 

Questions. — 192. When did Crassus depart for the east? Give an account of his exploits 
and death. 193. What was Osesar doing in Gaul at that time? Name some of his exploits. 
How was the triple chain broken ? What followed? 194. What did Ciesar's friends urge 
upon him? Why would not Pompey consent ? What decree did the senate pass? Why 
was the decree not carried out ? 



390 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 49. 

senate then had recourse to their highest prerogative, and directed the 
consuls "to provide for the safety of the commonwealth." Pompey 
was appointed commander-in-chief of the armies of the republic. 
Antony and Cassius, thinking their lives in danger, fled to the camp 
of Caasar. 

195. O^esae passes tite Rubicon". — That general, perceiving that 
the time had come to decide whether he should submit to Pompey or 
Pompey to him, immediately broke up his camp in Cisalpine Gaul and 
marched toward Rome. He paused upon the banks of the Rubicon,* 
as if impressed with terror at the greatness of his enterprise. " If I 
pass this river," said he, " what miseries shall I bring upon my coun- 
try ! but if I now stop short, /am undone." At last, with an air of 
stern resolve, he plunged into the water, exclaiming, "The die is 
cast!" and was promptly followed by his soldiers. "On his march," 
says Plutarch, " as if war had opened wide its gates, not individuals 
were seen, as on other occasions, wandering about Italy, but whole 
cities, broken up and seeking refuge by flight." 

196. Most of the tumultuous title flowed toward Rome ; and that 
city was so filled with agitation and alarm, that the consuls were 
unable to discharge the solemn trust of their office. Pompey, who 
had all along assured the senate that "he could raise an army with 
the stamp of the foot," was now overwhelmed by censures from every 
side. He could gain no certain intelligence of Csesar's movements, but 
was continually embarrassed by terrifying reports. After vacillating 
some time between hopes and fears, the conqueror of Mithridates left 
Rome for Capua, where two legions, formerly in Caesar's service, were 
stationed. The greater part of the senate and his own private friends 
and dependents accompanied him ; and all ranks of people followed 
him some distance, with outcries and good wishes. 

197. Csesar, knowing that Rome would fall to the conqueror, did 
not take that city in his way, but pursued Pompey to Capua. Pom- 
pey retired to Brundusium, and embarked for Greece. Caesar, being 

* This was a little river which the Romans had ever considered the sacred boundar}' of 
their domestic empire. The senate had caused to be engraven on stone, and set up by the 
side of the stream, an edict, devoting to the infernal gods, and branding with the crime of 
sacrilege and parricide, any person who should presume to pass the Rubicon with an army, 
a legion, or even a single cohort. 

Questions.— 194. What then followed ? What appointment wa6 given to Pompey ? What 
course did Antony and Cassius then take? 195. What, finally, did Csesar perceive? How 
is the Rubicon situated? (Map No. 4.) What is stated in the note about the Rubicon? 
How did CiPsar reason about crossing the Rubicon ? Give the statement made by Plutarch. 
196. What was the condition of Rome at that time? Give an account of Pointer's move- 
ments. 1U7. Give a further account of his movements. Where was Capua? (Map No. 4.) 



B.C. 48.] THE PLAINS OF PHARSALIA. 391 

unable to follow him for want of shipping, returned to Rome, with the 
glory of having reduced Italy in sixty days without spilling a drop of 
blood. He treated all who surrendered with the greatest kindness, 
telling them that he came not to destroy the liberties of his country, 
but to restore them. 

198. C^sar goes to Spain. — Securing the treasures of Rome, he 
now determined to deprive Pompey of the assistance he expected from 
Spain. Accordingly, having refreshed his men, he led them once 
more a long and fatiguing march across the Alps, through dense 
forests and over rapid rivers, into Spain ; and when we consider that 
every soldier carried 60 lbs. weight of armor and ten days 1 provision, 
we must admire the address of a man who could, under such circum- 
stances, retain the allegiance of his army. Caesar's success equaled his 
expectations. In forty days he subdued all Spain, and dismissed his 
vanquished adversaries the richer and the happier for having been 
conquered. When the victor arrived at Rome he was received with 
demonstrations of joy, and created dictator and consul. 

199. Dyrrachium. — While Caesar was thus employed, Pompey was 
equally active in Greece. All the monarchs of the east declared in his 
favor; crowds came from Italy to join his army ; and Cicero and Cato, 
the known advocates of freedom, secured for his cause the sanction of 
the good throughout the world. Caesar, resolving to terminate the 
conflict as soon as possible, after much difficulty and danger, succeeded 
in transporting his troops to Epirus. A battle was fought at Dyrra- 
chium, in which Pompey had the advantage; but, neglecting to make 
his success complete by seizing the camp, Caesar remarked, " This day the 
victory had been the enemy's had their general known how to conquer." 

200. The scarcity of provisions soon after compelled Caesar to remove 
to Thessaly. Pompey's soldiers immediately cried out with one voice, 
" Caesar is fled." Some called upon their general to pursue ; others 
advocated his return to Italy; others sent their servants to Rome to 
hire houses near the forum ; and not a few went over to Lesbos to 
congratulate Cornelia, the wife of Pompey, on the conclusion of the 
war. Pompey, however, thought it best to pursue Caesar, and wear 
him out with famine ; but when he overtook his rival upon the plains 
of Pharsalia he suffered himself to be overruled, and orders were con- 
sequently given to prepare for battle. 

Questions.— 197. What is said of Caesar upon his return to Rome ? 19S. In what way did 
he '"head off" Pompey ? What honors did he receive in Kome ? 199. How was Pompey 
meanwhile employed? Give an account of his successful preparations. Of the battle of 
Dyrrachium. Where was Dyrrachium ? (Map No. 2.) 200. What step was Caesar com- 
pelled to make? What then did the soldiers of Pompey do? What did Pompey think it 
best to do? Where did he overtake Ciesar? What change of purpose was then made ? 



392 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 48 

201. Battle of Piiaesalia. — b. c. 48. Caesar, who had in vain 
used every art to bring on an engagement, was preparing early in the 
morning to break up his camp, when his scouts brought intelligence 
that the enemy were handling arms, as if getting ready for an attack. 
Upon this news Caesar joyfully exclaimed, "The long-wished-for day 
s come when we shall fight with men, and not with famine." The 
ed mantle was immediately displayed before his pavilion, and the 

-oldiers, with the greatest alacrity, harnessed for the battle. Caesar, to 
•obviate his want of cavalry, had trained six cohorts to fight between 
the files of horsemen, not by discharging their javelins, according to 
the usual custom, but by aiming directly at the visages of the enemy; 
u For those fair young dancers," said he, " will fly to save their hand- 
some faces." The plain of Pharsalia was now covered with men, and 
horses, and arms ; and the two generals walked from rank to rank, 
animating their soldiers with prospects of victory. 

202. It was a fearful sight to see the same arms on both sides, 
troops marshaled in the same manner, the same standards, the same 
fierce Roman countenances; in short, the flower and strength of the 
same city turned upon itself. On one side, Pompey prepared to do 
battle against the man whom he had raised to power; on the other, 
Ca3sar stood ready to tear the laurel from the brow of the husband 
whom his departed darling Julia had loved better than life. The word 
on Pompey's side was " Hercules the Invincible ;" that on Caesar's, 
"Venus the Victorious." Caesar's soldiers rushed on with their usual 
impetuosity, but, perceiving the enemy standing motionless, they stop- 
ped short in the midst of their career. A terrible pause ensued, in 
which both sides, being near enough to recognize the countenances of 
their assailants, continued to gaze upon each other with dreadful sere- 
nity ; at length Caesar's men, having taken breath, ran furiously for- 
ward, first discharging their javelins, and then drawing their swords. 
Pompey's infantry sustained the attack with great resolution, and his 
cavalry charging at the same time, Caesar's men began to give ground. 

203. At this moment Caesar's six cohorts advanced, and the cavalry, 
just spurring on to victory, received an immediate check. The unu- 
sual method of fighting pursued by the cohorts, their aiming at the 
faces of the enemy, and the horrible disfiguring wounds they made, 
stopped the career of the " handsome dancers," and caused them to 
fly in great disorder. The cohorts then attacked the infantry in flank, 

Questions.— 201. When was the battle of Pharsalia fought? Give an account of the man- 
ner in which it was brought about. 202, 203. Give an account of the battle. To what was 
Ciesar indebted for victory ? Where was Pharsalia ? (See Map No. 2.) 



B. c. 43.] THE FALL OF POM PET. 393 

and fresh troops coming up in front, that body also began to waver, 
upon which Offisar called out, " Pursue the strangers, but spare the 
Romans." The fight had continued from break of day till noon ; the 
soldiers were faint and weary; but Caesar, thinking his victory not 
complete, summoned his men from the pursuit of the fugitives to 
storm the camp. 

204. Pompey's Flight. — As for Pompey, no sooner had he seen the 
fate of his cavalry than he quitted the ranks like one distracted, and, 
without considering that he was Pompey the Great, or making any 
effort to rally his men, retired, step by step, to his tent, where he sat 
down without saying a word. He was aroused by intelligence that 
the enemy had commenced the work of plunder. "What," cried he, 
"into my very camp, too?" No time was to be lost. Silencing hi* 
vain regrets, and hastily exchanging his armor for a disguise more 
suitable to his present circumstances, he took his solitary way through 
the delicious vale of Tempe, wrapped up in such thoughts as a man 
might be supposed to have who had been accustomed for thirty-four 
years to conquer, and now felt for the first time the mortification of 
defeat; as one who had lately seen himself guarded by fleets and 
armies, and now was so meanly attired that his enemies passed him by 
as of no consequence. He threw himself upon the ground, took his 
evening draught from the river Peneus, and passed the night in the 
hut of a poor fisherman. 

205. The next morning he embarked in a small ship and sailed for 
Lesbos, where Cornelia was waiting till he should come and take her 
in triumph to Rome. When a messenger told Cornelia that her hus- 
band had arrived with only one ship, and that not his own, she ran 
down to the shore with tears and lamentations, and fell fainting into 
his arms. A few friends speedily assembled, and embarked with the 
fugitive pair for Asia Minor. They coasted along for several days, 
uncertain where to land, and fearing lest every ally should prove an 
enemy ; finally, Pompey, who had been a benefactor to Ptolemy 
Auletes, decided on going to Egypt. The vessel came to anchor off the 
coast, while Pompey sent a message to the young king, imploring pro- 
tection. The corrupt ministers of the Egyptian court, thinking it 
equally unsafe to receive or refuse him, proposed that he should be 
invited on shore and slain. 

206. End of Pompey the Geeat. — In pursuance of this treacher- 

Questions. — 204. How did Pompey behave directly after the battle? How, after the 
enemy had commenced plundering his camp? Where did he pass the night? 205. For 
what place did he sail next morning? Where was the island of Lesbos? (See Map No. 2.) 
Give an account of his flight to the time of his reaching Egypt. 

1»7* 



394 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 48. 

ons design, Septimius, formerly a centurion in Pompey's army, and 
Achillas, master of the Egyptian horse, embarked in a small galley 
and rowed off toward the ship. The meanness of the preparations 
excited the suspicions of the Romans ; but Achillas coming up, wel- 
comed Pompey to Egypt with great cordiality, and apologized for his 
little boat, by saying that the shallows prevented the sailing of a larger 
one. After tenderly embracing Cornelia, Pompey stepped into the 
galley with only two attendants. The most profound silence reigned, 
till Pompey, recollecting the face of Septimius, remarked, " Methinks, 
friend, you and I were once fellow-soldiers together." Septimius 
nodded his head without saying a word. 

207. In this manner they neared the shore; and Cornelia, who had 
never lost sight of the bark and its precious freight, began to breathe 
more freely when she saw the people crowding down to the beach, as 
if anxious to welcome her husband's arrival; but the instant Pompey 
rose Septimius stabbed him in his back, and Achillas immediately 
seconded the blow. At this horrid sight, Cornelia shrieked so loud as 
to be heard from the shore; but the danger she herself was in did not 
allow the mariners time to look on ; and, a favorable wind springing 
up, they escaped the pursuit of the Egyptian galleys. Pompey's mur- 
derers, having cut off his head, caused it to be embalmed as a present 
for Caesar; his body was thrown naked on the strand, a spectacle for 
the idle or curious; his faithful freed man, however, kept near it, and, 
when the crowd had dispersed, washed it in the sea. Then, gathering 
the wrecks of a fishing-boat, he composed a pile and prepared to 
burn it. 

208. "While thus piously employed he was joined by an old Roman 
soldier, who begged for "the last sad comfort of assisting at the fune- 
ral of the bravest general Rome ever produced." Together they stood 
on that inhospitable shore, watching the flame till it died away; and 
then, collecting the ashes of their beloved master, scraped with their 
hands a little mound of earth over them, where afterward this inscrip- 
tion was placed: "He whose merits deserve a temple can now scarce 
find a tomb." Such was the end and such the funeral of Pompey the 
Geeat — a man who preserved a spotless character in the midst of 
associates plunged in rapine and massacre ; whose virtues were ob- 
scured by the faults of the triumvirate, but whose melancholy and 
undeserved fate converts all censure of his weaknesses into compassion 
foi his misfortunes. 

Questions.— 206. 207, 20S. Of his inglorious death. What is said of Cornelia ? Of the dis- 
position made of Pompey's body? Where did the scene take place? 









b c. 46] CAESAR VICTORIOUS. 395 

209. Caesar again. — Csesar gave liberty to the Thessalians, in 
gratitude for the victory at Pharsalia, and then pursued Pompey to 
Egypt. He landed at Alexandria with a select body of troops, and, 
soon after, the young king's preceptors brought him the head and ring 
of Pompey. He turned away with horror from the ghastly counte- 
nance of his rival, but he took his signet and wept over it. On the 
spot where his humble grave had been made he ordered a magnificent 
tomb to be erected, and treated every friend of Pompey with peculiar 
kindness. The attempts of Caesar to settle the succession to the 
throne of Egypt in favor of Cleopatra involved him in a difficult and 
dangerous war with the Egyptians. He first suffered from an attack 
in the palace; next, his enemies stopped the aqueducts which supplied 
him with water; then he was forced to burn his own ships to prevent 
their being taken ; and again he was near losing his life in a sea-fight, 
when, leaping into the water, he swam from one vessel to another, 
holding his Commentaries in one hand and his coat of mail in his 
teeth. A re-enforcement arriving not long after, and Ptolemy being 
drowned, Csesar was enabled to establish Cleopatra upon the throne. 

210. The Egyptians submitted peaceably to her dominion, and Csesar 
himself was completely captivated by her charms. Week after week, 
and month after month, he lingered in Alexandria, till the brave vete- 
rans who had followed his fortunes boldly rebuked his conduct, and 
refused to accompany him in his excursions with the Egyptian queen. 
From this inglorious ease Csesar was aroused by intelligence that 
Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, had seized upon Armenia and Colchis. 
He immediately marched against the rebel, and, reduced him with such 
ease, that he wrote to Rome a letter containing only three words, 
" Veni, vidi, vici " (I came, I saw, I conquered). Having settled 
affairs in this part of the empire, gathered the revenues, and bestowed 
provinces upon his followers, Csesar returned to Italy. During his 
absence he had been created consul for five years, dictator for one 
year, and tribune for life. 

211. End of Cato. — Pompey's party had, meantime, rallied in 
Africa, under Scipio, Cato, and Juba (king of Mauritania). Scarcely, 
therefore, had Caesar laid aside his armor, when he was forced again 
to buckle it on and embark for Africa. In the great battle of Thap- 
sus he totally defeated his antagonists. Juba and his general killed 

Questions.— 209. How did Caesar treat the Thessalians? How did he act with reference 
to the head and friends of Pompey? How did he involve himself in a war with Eirypt? 
How did he establish Cleopatra upon the throne of Egypt? 210. What influence did Cleo- 
patra exert upon Caesar ? Upon what occasion did Ciesar write his celebrated laconic letter ? 
Give the words of that letter, with their meaning. In what direction did Ca'sar next go? 
211. What account can you give of the battle of Thapsus ? What became of Juba ? 



396 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 46 

each other in despair; Scipio was drowned in an attempt to escape by 
sea; so that of all the leaders of that unfortunate party, Cato alone 
survived. After the battle of Pharsalia this extraordinary man had 
led the wretched remnants of Pompey's army through burning deserts, 
infested by fiery serpents, to the city of Utica, where he formed the 
principal persons into a senate, and established a government accord- 
ing to his ideas of liberty. 

212. This city he attempted to defend against the whole force of 
Cajsar, but, finding that the inhabitants were intimidated by the great- 
ness of the undertaking, he resolved no longer to force them to be 
free. Having, accordingly, made arrangements for some of his friends 
to save themselves by sea, and directed others to rely upon Cassar's 
clemency, he retired to his room, observing, "that as to himself, he 
was at last victorious." He read in Plato's Dialogue concerning the 
soul till past midnight, when he fell into a profound sleep. Upon 
awaking, and learning that his friends had embarked, he ordered his 
attendants to leave the room, and, drawing his sword, gave himself a 
mortal wound. As he fell upon the bed, he overturned a stand upon 
which he had been drawing some geometrical figures ; his family, 
hearing the noise, rushed in, and found him in the agonies of death. 
"Cato," said Caesar, when he heard of it, "I envy thee thy death." 

213. Cjssar Dictator. — The war in Africa being thus terminated, 
Cassar returned to Rome. He had conquered more countries than any 
of his predecessors, and his triumph was proportionably splendid. It 
lasted four days. The first was for Gaul ; the second, for Egypt ; the 
third, for Asia; and the fourth, for the conquest over Juba in Africa. 
His veteran soldiers, who had followed him from the frozen shores of 
the Baltic to the burning sands of Africa; who had shared his toils 
and dangers 13 years, now, all scarred with wounds, received their 
honorable discharge, and accompanied him, crowned with laurel, to 
the capitol. To every soldier he gave a sum equal to $700; double 
that sum to a centurion; and four times as much to the superior offi- 
cers. To every citizen he gave ten bushels of corn, ten pounds of oil, 
and about $5 in money. He feasted the people at 20,000 tables, and 
treated them to such games and shows of gladiators as drew immense 
crowds into the city. 

214. The Romans, charmed with his munificence, seemed eager to 
find new methods of doing homage to their benefactor. He was 

Questions— 211. Of Scipio? Where was Thapsus? (See Map No. 1.) What had Cato 
accomplished since the battle of Pharsalia? 212. Give the particulars preceding the death 
of Cato. Also, of his death. 213. The war in Africa being ended, what did Caesar then do J 
How did he reward his soldiers? What did he give to each citizen ? What else did he do 



B.C. 45.] HONORS TO CAESAR. 397 

created Magister Morum ;* he received the titles of Emperor, and 
Father of his country ; his person was declared sacred, and his statue 
was placed by the side of that of Jupiter in the capitol. "While mat- 
ters were going on thus prosperously at home, the sons of Pompey 
again renewed the war in Spain. It took Caesar nine months to quell 
this revolt, and his danger was so great in one battle, that he observed, 
" he had often fought for victory, but this was the first time he ever 
fought for life.' 1 '' One of the sons of Pompey was slain ; the other col- 
lected a fleet, and made his home upon the sea.t 

215. Caesar, by this last blow, subdued all his avowed enemies. He 
returned to Rome, to beautify and adorn it with all the works which 
art could furnish, and all the treasures which different climes could 
bestow. Like Alexander, he conceived the project of consolidating all 
governments into one great empire. It was his intention to visit 
Parthia, avenge the death of Crassus, pass through Hyrcania, enter 
Scythia along the banks of the Caspian, cut his way through the 
untrodden forests of Germany into G-aul, and so return to Italy. The 
senate, with an adulation that marked the degeneracy of the times, 
continued to load him with fresh honors. They called the month 
Quintilis "July," after his name; they stamped money with his 
image;| they instituted sacrifices on his birthday, and talked of enroll- 
ing him among the gods. 

216. One title, and one only, they denied him, and this title, above 
all others, Caesar coveted. It was King. The crimes which the con- 
duct of the Tarquinii had attached to that name, the hatred of it which 
had consequently been cherished in every Reman breast, made it more 
odious than all other names beside. Old men who had hailed Sylla 
perpetual dictator with joy; veterans who had saluted Pompey im- 
perator, with enthusiastic acclamations ; and young men who called 
Caesar emperor, father, god, were equally shocked with the thought of 
his being King. 

217. End of Cesar. — Antony, at one of the public festivals, offered 
Caesar a diadem; the multitude looked on in dejected silence; but 
when Caesar refused the bauble, they rent the air with shouts. A few 

* Master of the morals of the people. 

t Antony had taken possession of Pompey's house in Borne. 

% See Mark xii. 1&— 17. 

Quest ions.— 214. What follies did the Romans commit in doing homage to their benefac- 
tor ? What happened in Spain ? What became of Pompey's sons? 215. After this victory, 
-what was the pursuit of Caesar? What ambitious views were burning in his heart? Of 
•what adulation were the Roman senate guilty? 216. What is said of Caesar in connection 
with the title of king ? 217. How did Caesar receive the offer of a diadem ? 



398 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 44 

days after, Caesar's statues were seen adorned with crowns. Two of 
the tribunes went and tore them off, and the people applauded the 
deed, styling the independent magistrates Brutuses; but Coasar called 
them brutes, and deposed them from their offices. These, and similar 
acts, gave rise to a conspiracy, of which Caius Cassius was the head. 
Marcus Brutus, the son-in-law of Cato, and about sixty senators, were 
engaged in the plot. Brutus was descended from that Brutus who 
first gave liberty to Rome. He fought on Pompey's side in the battle 
of Pharsalia, but Caesar pardoned him, and loaded him with favors. 

218. It was agreed to carry the plot into execution on the ides of 
March, a day on which Caesar's friends proposed to invest him with 
the title of king of all the conquered countries, while he should still be 
styled dictator in Italy. The augurs had warned him to beware of the 
ides of March; and as his wife, the night before, dreamed he was 
assassinated in her arms, Caesar had determined not to go to the 
senate-house that day. One of the conspirators, however, came in, 
and, assuring him that the senate were waiting, prevailed upon him to 
change his resolution. As he went along, a Greek philosopher handed 
him a paper containing the particulars of the plot, but Caesar gave it 
to his secretary without reading. As he entered the senate-house, he 
met the augur: "Well, Spurina," said he, "the 'ides of March' are 
come." — " Yes," replied the augur, " but not gone." 

219. No sooner had the dictator taken his seat, than the conspirators 
crowded around him ; and one, on pretense of presenting a petition, 
knelt down and took hold of the bottom of his robe. Upon this signal 
Casca stabbed him in the shoulder. Caesar instantly turned, and 
wounded the traitor with his stylus. All the conspirators now drew 
their swords, and surrounded him in such a manner, that whichever 
way he turned he saw nothing but steel gleaming in his face, and met 
nothing but wounds. Still he defended himself, pushing back one 
enemy, throwing down a second, and wounding a third, till Brutus, 
coming up, thrust his dagger into his thigh. As if heart-broken with 
the cruel wound, the dying Caesar exclaimed, "et tu Brute,''' (and thou, 
too, Brutus) ; and, disposing his robe so as to fall with decency, sank 
down at the foot of Pompey's statue, the base of which was all dyed 
with his blood. 

220. Measures of the Conspirators. — There the mangled body 
lay, while Brutus, raising his gory dagger, called on Cicero to rejoice 
in his country's liberty, and, ascending the tribunal, began to harangue 

Questions. — 217, 218, 219. What conspiracy followed soon after? Describe the tragedy in 
the senate house. 220. What was the course of Brutus ? Of Antony ? 



b. c. 43.] ANTONY, OCTAVIUS, & LEPIDUS. 309 

the sen;> L .ors ; they all fled, however, in such haste and dismay, that 
their lives were endangered in the throng. Brutus and the rest of the 
conspirators marched to the capitol, and garrisoned the place with a 
band of gladiators. Next day Brutus made a speech to the people, 
and congratulated them upon their freedom ; while Antony and Lepi- 
dus, taking possession of the forum, convened the senate, to decide 
whether Csesar had been a lawful magistrate or a tyrannical usurper. 
To stop commotions, to save confiscations and executions, this august 
body approved all the acts of Ccesar, and yet granted a general pardon 
to his murderers. 

221. Antony, however, being determined to ride into power on the 
waves of popular commotion, brought out the body of Caesar for 
burial ; and having read the dictator's will, in which every citizen was 
munificently remembered, he so excited the minds of the people, that 
they tore up the benches, and burned the body in the forum. Then 
snatching flaming brands from the pile, they ran to set fire to the 
houses of the conspirators, who fled from the city. The dead Caesar 
was proclaimed a god, divine honors were paid to his memory, and an 
altar was erected on the spot where his body was burned. While An- 
tony was thus clothing himself with popular favor, the individual 
before whose genius " the star of his destiny turned pale" appeared 
in Rome. This was Octavius Caesar, grand-nephew of the late dicta- 
tor. He had been in Athens at school, but, hearing of his uncle's 
death, hastened over to Italy to claim his inheritance, and bestow 
legacies upon his friends. Antony, who was using this money to for- 
ward his own plans, was little pleased to be called to an account; and 
whrn the senate set up the young Octavius for his rival, his rage 
knew no bounds. 

P22. Cicero joined the party of Octavius ; and the senate passed a 
decree that Antony should resign his government of Cisalpine Gaul, 
and await their pleasure upon the banks of the Rubicon. Antony 
indignantly refused to obey. The senate declared him an enemy to 
Rome, and sent Octavius against him. A battle was fought, in which 
Antony was entirely defeated, and compelled to fly to Lepidus, in Far- 
ther Gaul. This victory made Octavius too powerful. The senate 
refused him a triumph and the consulship. Perceiving that it was 
their intention to play him otf against Antony, Octavius signified to 
that general and Lepidus his desire of an accommodation. The place 

Questions.— 221, 222. What further is said of Antony's course? Who was Octavius? 
What was his business in Rome? What troubles portended? What battle was fought ? 
Why did the senate refuse Octavius a triumph and the consulship? What course did 
Octavius then decide upon ? Where is the town of Bologna? (See modern map.) 



400 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [b. c. 43. 

appointed for the meeting was a little island in the Rhine, not far 
from the present town of Bologna. They met as friends, and seated 
themselves in that isolated spot to settle a plan of operations which 
should give to them sovereign power, and enable them to triumph 
over their enemies. 

223. Second Triumvirate. — b. c. 43. During the fatal three days 
which the conference lasted, a Second Triumvirate was formed by 
Lepidus, Antony, and Octavius; and there, with the world spread 
before them as a map, they divided kingdoms, deposed governors, and 
proscribed their fellow-citizens, with the utmost composure. Antony 
was to have Gaul ; Lepidus, Spain ; and Octavius, Africa and the 
islands of the Mediterranean. Italy and the eastern provinces were to 
remain in common till the conspirators were subdued. The last arti- 
cle of this agreement made Rome weep tears of blood. Each one 
presented a list of his enemies for proscription. Lepidus gave up his 
brother; Antony, his uncle; and Octavius consented to sacrifice the 
immortal Cicero to the vengeance of Antony; besides which 200 sena- 
tors and 2,000 knights were doomed to death. That was a dreadful 
day for Rome, when the triumvirs, strong in their union, and strong 
in the allegiance of the army, sent forth their assassins to seal with the 
blood of her citizens the horrid compact made in the solitude of a 
desert island in Gaul. Nothing but cries and lamentations were to be 
heard within the walls, scarce a house escaping without a murder. 

224. Cicero evaded his pursuers for some time, and put off to sea, 
but soon landed again, declaring that "he would die in the country he 
had so often saved." The assassins of Antony found him, cut off his 
head and right hand, and placed them over that rostrum where he 
had so often declaimed upon the rights and privileges of Roman citi- 
zens. Thus the proscription went on ; many escaped to Macedonia, 
where Brutus and Cassius were raising an army to restore the ancient 
liberties of the republic; and some fled to Sextus Pompey, who 
covered the Mediterranean with his ships. At last the vengeance of 
the triumviri seemed fully satisfied, and the executions being at an 
end, Octavius and Antony marched with their army to oppose the 
conspirators, leaving Lepidus to manage affairs in their absence. 

225. Battle of Philippi. — b. o. 43. Brutus and Cassius had, 
meantime, persuaded the Roman students in Athens to arm in the 

Questions— 222. What is said of the .meeting? 223, 224. By what means were Antony 
and Octavius made friends? What object had they in common with each other? Who 
constituted the second triumvirate? Give an account of their proceedings. Of their pro- 
scriptions, &c. 225. In what year did the battle of Philippi take place? Where was 
Philippi? (See Map No. 8.* Who co nnnnded the Rorn.in youth ? 



b. c. 42.] THE DEATH OF BRUTUS. 401 

cause of freedom ; auxiliaries also flocked to them from Macedonia and ■ 
Asia Minor, so that their army numbered twelve legions, and they 
could count upon supplies for protracting the war to any length of 
time. Antony and Octavius encountered them at Philippi. The first 
engagement was indecisive. Brutus put the troops of Octavius to 
flight, but Cassius was defeated and slain. Twenty days after, Brutus 
was compelled again to give battle. His spirits were very mu 
depressed, and a sad foreboding of his fate diminished his natural 
ardor.* He, however, led forward his troops and attacked the enemy 
with great fury. As before, he was successful where he commanded 
in person, but the troops of Cassius, remembering their former defeat, 
fled before the impetuous charge of Antony, and victory soon declared 
in favor of the triumvirs. 

226. Brutus, surrounded by his most valiant officers, fought for a 
long time with amazing valor, and not till the son of Cato and the 
brother of Cassius ha.d fallen by his side could he be persuaded to 
leave the field. With much difficulty he escaped from his pursuers, 
and concealed himself under the shadow of a bending rock. A few 
friends gathered round, with whom he conversed for a time, upon the 
adversity which virtue suffers at the hand of fortune. He then retired 
to a little distance, and having persuaded Strato, his master in oratory, 
to hold his sword, threw himself upon it and expired.! Antony 
treated the body of Brutus with great respect, threw his own robe 
over it, and caused it to receive funeral honors. 

227. Dissolution of the Triumvirate. — After the victories at 
Philippi, Antony passed through Greece and Asia Minor, settling the 
revenues of the provinces, and calling governors to account with the 
air of a sovereign.^ But when the beautiful Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, 
came to Tarsus to answer for having furnished supplies for the con- 

* When Brutus was in Sardis he was in the habit of waking at midnight and studying 
till morninff. " One night," says Plutarch, " when the whole army lay in sleep and silence, 
Brutus, turning toward the door, saw a horrible specter standing silently by his side. ' Art 
thou God or man? 1 said the intrepid general. 'I am thy evil genius, Brutus, 1 replied tho 
phantom; 'thou wilt see me at Philippi.' When the apparition was gone, Brutus called 
his servants, but, finding they had seen nothing, resumed his studies. The ni^rht preceding 
this second battle of Philippi it is said the specter came again and warned him of his doom. 1 * 

t It is observed, that of all those who had a hand in the murder of Caesar, not one died a 
natural death. Porcia, Cato's daughter (the wife of Brutus), killed herself by swallowing 
burning coals. 

X He established Herod in the kingdom of Judea, and supported him against every 
opposer. 

Questions. — 225. What auxiliaries flocked to their standard? What is said of the first 
engagement? Of the second? Who were the victors ? 226. What was the fate of Brutus? 
227. After the victorias of Phili] pi what did Antony do ? What is said of him and Cleopatra ? 



402 COMMONWEALTH OP ROME. [b. c. 31. 

spirators, the conqueror became a captive, and was led off to Egypt in 
her chains. Octavins returned to Rome, where he commenced a train 
of operations which finally put him in possession of absolute power. 
He dispossessed the peaceful inhabitants of the fertile vales of Italy, 
and established his veteran soldiers in their habitations. The poet 
Virgil alone, of all the people of Mantua, was permitted to retain his 
patrimonial farm. A civil war, excited by Fulvia, wife of Antony, 
next distracted the Roman state. Fulvia, being conquered, went to 
Greece and died there. Antony, roused by the trump of war, hast- 
ened to Italy to fight with Octavius. They met at Brundusinm ; a 
reconciliation took place, and Antony married Octavia, sister of his 
brother triumvir. Though this was a political union, yet the virtue 
and beauty of Octavia exercised a beneficial influence upon Antony, 
and for four years he remained with her, in harmony with Octavius 
and Lepidus. 

228. A new division of the empire was made, by which Antony 
received the east; Octavius, the west; Lepidus, Africa; and Sextus 
Pompey, the islands of the sea. Antony undertook an expedition into 
Parthia, but returned after an inglorious campaign to Cleopatra. Octa- 
vius quarreled with Pompey, and drove him from one place to ano- 
ther, till he was put to death by Antony's lieutenant. He then com- 
menced a war with Lepidus for the island of Sicily, and having secured 
the person of his opponent, banished him. Antony was now the sole 
obstacle of his ambition, and Octavius began his machinations against 
him by rendering his character as contemptible as possible at Rome. 
In this he was very successful, for Antony's mismanagement in the 
Parthian expedition, his neglect of the injured Octavia, his all-absorb- 
ing devotion to Cleopatra, and his display of power in giving away 
crowns and thrones, irritated the people, and disposed them to take 
up arms against him. 

229. Battle of Actium, b. o. 31. War between the rivals was 
finally declared in due form. Octavius approached from Italy with 
all the forces of the west, and Antony came on from the east with an 
overwhelming army. The bay of Actium, on the coast of Epirus, was 
the Pharsalia of these two triumvirs; and here again a decisive battle 
sent the one a fugitive to Egypt, and gave to the other the empire of 

Questions. — 227. What did Octavius do ? What is said of Fulvia ? What induced Antony 
f o hasten to Italy? Where did he meet Octavius? In what manner did they become 
reconciled? 22S. What new division of the empire was made? In what was Antony 
unsuccessful ? What became of Pompey ? Of Lepidus ? What machinations did Octavins 
Instigate against Antony? How far was he successful? 229. Where was Actiuin ? (See 
Map No. 2.) When was the battle of Actium fought? Give an account of it. 



b. c. 31. J AUGUSTUS. 403 

the world. After having spent two years in the east, arranging the 
affairs of Egypt, Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor, Octavius returned to 
Rome. He had now no rivals and no avowed enemies. The laws of 
the triumvirate were abolished, and after his seventh consulship he 
resigned his power. The senate, however, besought him to retain it; 
and with apparent reluctance he continued to do so, under the title of 
Prixce of the Senate. By degrees all offices of trust and dignity 
were united in his person. He was styled imperator, or commander- 
in-chief by sea and land; he was elected proconsul of all the prov 
inces; perpetual tribune of the people; censor, and pontif ex maximus ; 
the laws were made subject to him, and the observance of them 
depended upon his will. 

230. Thus secure in power, he laid aside the vices which had 
deformed his character, and strove to make the people forget in the 
beneficent rule of the Emperoe Augustus the tyranny of the triumvir 
Octavius. The wars which he carried on in Spain, Germany, and 
other countries, were all terminated in favor of the Roman arms; a 
treaty was concluded with the Parthians, by which they gave up 
Armenia, and restored the eagles taken from Crassus and Antony ; 
and thus completing the victories of his predecessors, and awing the 
nations into peace, he made Rome the mistress of the world !* The 
little city founded by Romulus 750 years before, now contained within 
its massy walls 4,000,000 of souls, and held in subjection all nations 
from the Euphrates to the Atlantic; from the Scandinavian wilds to 
the immense deserts of Africa and the cataracts of the Nile. 

* Tacitus thus sums up the causes which conspired to place Augustus in the position 
he occupied: "The fate of Brutus and Gassius being decided, the commonwealth had no 
longer an army engaged in the cause of liberty. The younger Pompey received a total 
overthrow on the coast of Sicily; Lepidus was deprived of his legions, and Mark Antony 
fell on his own sword. In that situation the partisans of Julius Caesar had no leader but 
Octavius, who laid aside the invidious title of triumvir, content with the more popular name 
of consul, and with the tribunitian power which he professed to assume for the protection 
of the people. In a little time, when he had allured to his interest the soldiery by a profu- 
sion of largesses, the people by distributions of corn, and the minds of men in general by 
the sweets of peace, his views grew more aspiring. By degrees and almost imperceptibly 
he drew into his own hands the authority of the senate, the functions of the magistrates, 
and the administration of the laws. To these encroachments no opposition was made. 
The true republican had perished either in the field of battle or by the rigor of proscrip- 
tions; of the remaining nobility, the leading men were raised to wealth and honors in pro- 
portion as they courted the yoke ; and all who, in the distraction of the times, had risen to 
affluence, preferred immediate ease and safety to the danger of contending for ancient 
freedom." 

Questions. — 229, 230. How did Octavius spend the next two years? Beiate the history 
of Octavius until the Christian Era. Bound the Roman Empire on Map No. 1. 



THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 

SECTION VIII. 

1- a. d. 100, Augustus* was now emperor of the world. For 
£6 years he had reigned without a rival. A perfect calm prevailed at 
Rome. The younger part of the community were born since the battle 
of Actium, and the old during the civil wars. Augustus, in the vigor of 
health, maintained at once his own dignity, the honor of his house, 
and the public tranquillity. The temple of Janus was closed for the 
third time ; and the bloody trade of war was exchanged for the quiet 
pursuits of the husbandman and artisan. 

2. " In those days, when Herod was king in Judea, and Cyrenius 
was governor of Syria, there went out a decree from Caesar Augustus, 
that all the world should be taxed." Joseph and Mary, of the house 
and lineage of David, in consequence of this decree, were called to the 
little town of Bethlehem, and there was born the " Saviour, who is 
Christ the Lord." Angels published his advent; shepherds worshiped 
around the holy babe; and wise men, guided by his star, came from 
the east and presented to him gifts — gold, frankincense, and myrrh ; 
but Augustus sat upon his gilded throne, in the palace of the Caesars, 
unconscious that in the far-off province of Judea, in the humble vil- 
lage of Bethlehem, the Prince of Peace had appeared to purchase and 
establish a kingdom, before which " the gold, the silver, the brass, and 
the iron " of all former dominions " should become as the chaff of the 
summer threshing-floor." 

3. Augustus lived fourteen years after this event, every year increas- 
ing his fame by acts of beneficence, and by the splendid works with 

* Augustus was something below the middle size, but well proportioned, His hair w*>s 
of a yellowish brown, and inclined to curl ; his eyes were bright and lively ; but the general 
expression of his countenance was remarkably calm and mild. 

The Christian Era. — Section VIII. — Questions. — 1. At this epoch who was emperor of 
the world ? How many years did he reign without a rival ? 2. Give an account of tlm 
birth and lineage of our Saviour. 3. How many years did Augustus live after this event? 



A. D. 14.] TIBERIUS. 405 

Which he adorned his native city;* and every year receiving new hon- 
ors from the senate, and increased homage from the people. Altars 
were erected to him, and the month Sextilius was named "August" 
in his honor. He had divorced his third wife to marry Livia, the wife 
of Tiberius, an unprincipled woman, who in his old age completely 
ruled him. He had also many domestic troubles. His daughter Julia 
he was forced to banish for her bad conduct; her sons, whom he had 
appointed his successors, died young ; Tiberius, the eldest son of Livia, 
he had sent into exile ; and Drusus, the youngest son, whom he ten- 
derly loved, fell a victim to disease on his return from Germany. 
These afflictions, and the infirmities of age, disposed him to seek the 
quiet of the country. He died at Nola, in Campania, a. d. 14, in the 
76th year of his age, and the 45th of his reign. 

4. Tiberius. — Tiberius, the son of Livia, was immediately acknow- 
ledged his successor. The time had not yet come when an aspirant 
could assume the purple as an hereditary right. Tiberius, therefore, 
affected to decline the homage of the senate, and to distrust his own 
ability to sustain the weight of the empire. He proceeded, however, 
to deliver the royal standard to the prastorian guards, and to secure 
their attendance upon his person ; while he put to death Agrippa, the 
last grandson of Augustus, as he said, by command of the late emperor. 
These acts were but the commencement of the dark, crooked, and san- 
guinary policy which marked his administration. Those whom he 
hated, those whom he feared, and those whom he ought to have loved, 
were alike suspected, watched, and destroyed. A gloomy jealousy 
kept him constantly alive to the reports of spies and informers. The 
law of violated majestyt became the occasion of numerous executions 
and confiscations. 

5. G-ermanicus, the son of his brother Drusus, quelled a dangerous 
revolt in Germany, and refused the title of emperor which the legions 
insisted upon his assuming; but this display of virtue only roused the 
suspicions of Tiberius. Germanicus was recalled, ostensibly to enjoy 

* He beautified Rome so much that it was truly said of him : " He found it of bri Y and 
left it of marble. 11 

+ By a law of the Twelve Tables libels were strictly prohibited. Sylla construed all 
aspersions upon his character into violations of the majesty of the Eoman people ; and many 
persons in consequence suffered under the penalty of this law. Augustus revived it, and 
Tiberius made it a permanent law of the empire. Whoever was obnoxious to the prince or 
his favorites was brought within the law of majesty. Every thing was a state crime, and 
the trade of a public accuser became one of the most lucrative in the city. 

Questions. — 3. What were his domestic troubles ? In what year did he die? At what 
place? (See Map No. 4.) 4. Who was Tiberius? What deeds of cruelty characterized his 
reign? 5. What is said of Germanicus? Of his fate? 



406 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 37 

a triumph, and fill the office of consul. The noble general entered 
Rome seated in a lofty triumphal car, with his five children, while his 
followers displayed the spoils of the conquered, with various pictures 
of battles, mountains, and rivers, or led in chains the captive barba- 
rians. The people rent the air with acclamations; and Tiberius, 
seeming to share in the general joy, distributed money to the multi- 
tude in the name of his nephew. Not long after, Tiberius laid the 
condition of the eastern provinces before the senate, representing to 
the fathers that he was now in the vale of years, and his son Drusus 
yet a youth. His conclusion was, that to settle the troubles in Syria 
and Armenia, recourse must be had to the wisdom of Germanicus. 
The new consul was accordingly sent thither, accompanied by Piso, a 
man capable of any crime. He never returned. His widow, Agrip- 
pina, brought home his ashes in an urn, and demanded justice upon 
the murderer of her husband. Tiberius gave up Piso to the senate. 
The wretched man, not daring to accuse the emperor, escaped the 
ignominy of a public execution by suicide. 

6. A vicious Yolscian, Sejanus, had ingrafted himself into the affec- 
tions of Tiberius. During the eight years which this unworthy favor- 
ite retained his influence over the emperor, Drusus, the only son of 
Tiberius, was poisoned ; the two oldest sons of Germanicus were put 
to death, and Agrippina was banished. By his persuasions the em- 
peror left Rome in the twelfth year of his reign, and took up his resi- 
dence upon the little island of Capra?a. The impure orgies with which 
this retreat was disgraced cannot be recounted here. Tiberius, who 
was almost always intoxicated, gave up all the cares of state to Seja- 
nus; and the servile senate bestowed upon him honors second only 
to those of the emperor. 

7. The law of violated majesty was strictly enforced by the sangui- 
nary minister. The rich and noble, objects of suspicion to a jealous 
tyrant, and obstacles in the path of an ambitious favorite, were daily 
sacrificed to quiet the apprehensions of the one or the other; till 
finally, the heirs of the imperial family being destroyed, the power of 
the great enfeebled, and the praatorian bands gained over to his inte- 
rest, Sejanus thought the empire within his grasp. The plot was 
detected, and Antonia,*the mother of Germanicus, accused him to the 
emperor. Sejanus was strangled by the executioner. His death wag 
almost immediately followed by that of his royal master. The sick- 
bed of the emperor was attended by Caligula, only son of Germanicus, 

* This Antonia was the daughter of Antony and Octavia. 
Questions.— <n, 7. What of Sejanus ? Of the law of violated majesty ? 



a. d. 37.] CALIGULA. 407 

who, having waited some time in vain for the last breath of the tyrant, 
pressed a pillow upon his mouth, and avenged, though late, the 
wrongs of his parents and brothers. The news of Tiberius's death was 
received at Rome with cries of u Tiberius to the Tiber." His body 
was, however, carried to the city by the soldiers, and buried with 
funeral honors, a. d. 31, aged 78. 

8. In the eighteenth year of Tiberius's reign, Jesus Christ was cruci- 
fied. Shortly after, Pontius Pilate wrote to Tiberius an account of his 
miracles and resurrection, upon which the emperor made a report of the 
whole to the senate, requesting that Christ might be acknowledged a 
god by the Romans. The fathers, however pliant upon other subjects, 
were obstinate upon this, and, under plea of an ancient law, refused 
the emperor's demand, and ordered all Christians to quit the city. 

9. Caligula. — Caius Caesar spent the early years of his life in the 
camp in Germany. He was a great favorite with the legions, and was 
surnamed by them ''Caligula 1 ' from his wearing a little pair of shoes 
(caligae), such as covered the feet of the common soldiers. After his 
father's death and his mother's banishment, he lived with his great- 
grandmother Livia; when she died, he removed _ to the family of his 
grandmother Antonia. In his twentieth year Tiberius invited the 
young Caesar to take up his abode with him upon the island, where he 
displayed such wanton cruelty that the emperor predicted that " Caius 
would prove a serpent to swallow Rome, and a phaeton to set the 
world on fire." Caligula, however, was no sooner possessed of sove- 
reign power than he assumed an appearance of great virtue and mode- 
ration. The authority of the magistrates was restored ; the will of 
Tiberius faithfully executed; and all prosecutions for treason were 
forbidden. 

10. This delightful state of things lasted eight months, when the 
emperor fell dangerously sick, in consequence, it was supposed, of a 
love-potion given him by his mistress. When he recovered, either 
deranged by disease or wearied of dissimulation, he began his course 
of cruelty and crime. In a short reign of four years, he so distin- 
guished himself by every species of wickedness that u the tyranny of 
Tiberius was forgotten in the enormities of Caligula." With him, 
prodigality and avarice went hand in hand. He dissipated the trea- 
sures which Tiberius had collected in the most foolish and expensive 
works, and found occasions against noble and wealthy people to get 

Questions. — 8. In whose reign was Christ crucified ? In what year did it occur ? 9. Who 
■wtis Caius Cresar? Why was he called Caligula? What was the prophecy of Tiberius con- 
corning him? How did Caligula at first reign? 10. Give an account of his subsequent 
reign. How did he proclaim his poverty ? 



408 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 41. 

possession of their estates. He sold all the property of his sisters, the 
furniture of the old court, the clothes of Augustus and Tiberius, and, 
having a daughter born, he proclaimed his poverty, and stood in his 
vestibule to receive presents of all who came to congratulate him. 

11. He made an expedition into Gaul, and even set sail for Britain ; 
but soon ordered his troops to draw back to the shore, and fill their 
helmets with sea-shells. "This booty," cried he, "ravished from the 
sea, is worthy my palace and the capitol." His horse seemed to have 
a peculiar claim upon his affections. It was kept in a stable of marble, 
and fed from a manger of ivory. Sometimes it was invited to the 
table of the emperor, and presented with gilt oats, and wine in a 
golden cup. The wanton murders and confiscations with which Rome 
was filled had caused several conspiracies against Caligula, which, 
being discovered, brought the usual train of impeachments and execu- 
tions. Cherea, a tribune of the praetorian bands,* at last delivered the 
empire from the tyrant, a. d. 41. 

12. Claudius. — No sooner was the death of Caligula known, than 
the royal guards began to wreak their vengeance upon all those whom 
they supposed concerned in his murder. As they were hurrying 
through the palace in their work of death, they found Claudius, uncle 
of the late king, hiding in an obscure corner, and immediately pro- 
claimed him emperor, assigning as their reason, "his relationship to 
the whole family of the Ca3sars."t Claudius was now fifty years old ; 
he had been a rickety child, and disease, together with severe treat- 
ment, had perpetuated the timidity and indolence of childhood. 
Though styled "the silly emperor," his imbecilities were to be attri- 
buted rather to his vices than to his want of abilities. He embellished 
Rome with many magnificent works, and went in person to the war 
in Britain ; but, suffering himself to be ruled by women of the most 
abandoned character, he was induced to put to death many of the 
nobles of Rome upon false charges of conspiracy, and to bestow their 
estates upon his unworthy favorites. 

13. Claudius married Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, his niece. 
She prevailed on him to set aside his own Britannicus, and adopt 

* In every Roman camp the general's tent was called the Pr^toricm. The soldiers who 
formed the emperor's body-guard were called the praotorian cohorts. These soldiers were 
quartered at Koine, till Sejanus, in order to forward his own dark designs, persuaded 
Tiberius to form a praetorian camp without the city. 

t He was the brother of Germanicus, and consequently the nephew of Tiberius. 

Questions. — 11. What further account can you give of him? How many years did he 
n-iirn? What was the cause of his death? 12. Relate how Claudius was made emperor. 
How old was he thru ? What was his character ? 13. Whom did he marry ? 



A. d. 64. J NERO. 4(j9 

Nero, her child by a former husband. The weak father having after- 
wards shown a disposition to change the succession, Agrippina pre- 
pared for him a dish of mushrooms, spiced with poison. It was noth- 
ing uncommon for the emperor to eat and drink till he was perfectly 
stupid; when,, therefore, he was carried from the table to bed after 
this fatal repast, no surprise was excited ; and Nero, under the guid- 
ance of his mother, had time to secure the guards and take possession 
of the imperial authority before the death of Claudius was generally 
known. He reigned almost 14 years. 

14. Nero. — a. d. 54. Nero, the fifth in descent from Antony, 
though but seventeen years old, was hailed as emperor with joy by 
the Roman populace, and with alldue professions of respect by the 
obsequious senate. He had been carefully educated by Seneca the 
philosopher, and the first five years of his reign were distinguished by 
justice and clemency. Agrippina, who had gone to such lengths in 
crime to secure the throne for her son, was ambitious to share his 
power. When, however, he rejected her counsels, and gave his con- 
fidence to Acte, a female slave, the indignant queen broke out into 
o, en reproaches, and threatened to inform the soldiers of the. means 
by which Britannicus had been set aside. The death of Britannicus at 
a banquet was the consequence of this threat. The funeral took place 
the same night, and Nero followed the atrocious act by a proclamation 
calling upon the Roman people to support him, " now the only branch 
of a family born to rule the world." This murder forms the com- 
mencement of Nero's series of cruelties. He divorced his wife 
Octavia to marry Poppsea, whom he had taken from her husband Otho. 
This beautiful but unprincipled woman led him on to still greater 
crimes. Agrippina continued her struggles for power; and Nero, 
wearied of the contentions between her and Poppaea, caused his 
mother to be assassinated. 

15. In the year a. d. 64, a fire broke out in the circus at Rome, 
which raged about ten days with the greatest fury. It was believed 
that these flames were kindled by Nero's order, and.a report was cir- 
culated that during the conflagration he went to the theater and sung 
some verses upon the burning of Troy. Wishing, however, to escape 
popular indignation, Nero threw the odium of the act upon the Chris- 
tians, of whom there were great numbers in Rome, and the most ter- 

Questions. — 13. Give the closing account of him. 14. Who was Nero? When did he 
become emperor? By whom had he been educated? What is said of the first five years 
of his reign? What is said of Britannicus? What crimes followed? 15. What fire oo 
currcd? What belief prevailed in connection with the fire? Give an account of the perse 
cution of the GBristiana. 
18 



410 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. G-i. 

rible persecutions of these peaceable citizens consequently ensued. 
u Some were covered with the skins of wild beasts, and left to be 
devoured by dogs; some were crucified; great numbers were be- 
headed ; and many, covered over with inflammable matter, were lighted 
up when the day declined, to serve as torches during the night."* ■ 

16. For the convenience of seeing this tragic spectacle, Nero lent 
his own gardens, and varied the entertainments by driving round ii» 
his curricle and engaging in the sports of the circus. Nero caused the 
city and his own house to be rebuilt with ruinous splendor. The 
rubbish was removed to the marshes of Ostia; the streets were made 
wide and long; the houses were carried up to a specific height, 
and adorned with areas and porticos in front. In the same year the 
Jews, roused to fury by the cruelty and impiety of Florus, their pro- 
curator, took up arms to resist the Roman power ; and such was the 
desperation with which they fought, that Nero, with ill-concealed 
terror, ordered Vespasian, an officer who had distinguished himself in 
Britain, to repair immediately to the east. A conspiracy against the 
emperor was discovered, and followed by the usual train of judicial 
murders. Many innocent persons were put to death upon false accu- 
sations, among whom were Seneca and the poet Lucan. 

17. About the same time, Popptea died in consequence of a kick 
received from her brutal husband. Childishness and cruelty at length 
became the principal characteristics of the emperor. His voice wa9 
weak and unpleasant, but, fancying himself a splendid singer, he deter- 
mined to exhibit in the theater. No person was allowed to leave the 
house while he was performing ; soldiers were stationed in different 
places to see that the audience bestowed the proper quantity of 
applause, and one old senator, having unfortunately dropped to sleep, 
came very near losing his life. 

18. Wearied at last with the commendations of his countrymen, he 
resolved to display his talents to the refined Grecians. Messengers 
were sent before the monarch, to require the celebration of all the 
games in one year. At Olympia he undertook to drive ten horses 
around the Stadium, and though he was thrown from his seat, yet the 
obsequious judges bestowed upon him the victor's wreath. The 
Greeks, indeed, spared no pains to win his favor. They conferred, 
upon him 1,800 crowns! Nero entered Rome upon his return seated 
in the chariot of Augustus, with his wild olive garland around his 

* In this persecution St. Paul was beheaded and St. Peter crucified ? 

Questions.— 16. "What is said of the rebuilding of Eome ? Of the war with the Jews ? Of 
Beneca and Lucan? 17. Of Nero as a singer? 18. Of Nero in Greece? 



a. d. 68.] GALBA— OTHO. 411 

head, the Pythian bay in his iiand, and his 1,800 laurels by his side. 
The whole city was illuminated; incense was burned in the streets; 
the pavements were strewed with saffron, and flowers were showered 
upon him from the windows. The detestable acts of Nero and his 
predecessors had filled the provinces with discontent, and a general 
revolt was the consequence. Galba, the praetor of Spain, was pro- 
claimed emperor by the legions, and immediately began his march to 
Rome. 

19. Nero heard this intelligence while he was at supper. He over- 
turned the table with his foot; fell into a swoon; then into a violent 
fit of rage, threatening to poison the senate, and turn the wild beasts 
loose upon the people ; then talked of taking refuge in Parthia, and 
finally gave orders for packing his musical instruments, and preparing 
his women for departure. The praetorian guards, meantime, declared 
for Galba, and the citizens of Rome, rejoiced at the prospect of a 
change in the administration, joined in the revolt. His friends 
deserted him ; his domestics plundered his house and fled ; and the 
senate condemned him to death. The unhappy tyrant made his 
escape to the house of his freedman, where, after several ineffectual 
attempts, he succeeded in giving himself a mortal wound, in the 32d 
year of his age, and 14th of his reign. The race of Caesar ended with 
Nero. He was the last and the worst of that illustrious house, which 
held the sway in Rome for more than one century. 

20. Galba. — a. d. 68. The united reigns of the three monarchs, 
Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, did not amount to two years. Galba was 
72 years of age when he returned from Spain to ascend the throne of 
the Ca3sars. He was rigidly attached to the ancient discipline, and 
immediately made preparations to reform the state. The army, how- 
ever, clamored loudly against his efforts, and the various favorites 
who surrounded his person artfully increased the dissatisfaction. One 
ridiculed his simplicity, another exclaimed against his cruelty. Otho, 
the husband of Poppaea, having bribed two officers of the praetorian 
bands, gained that whole body over to his interest, and was proclaimed 
emperor. Galba caused himself to be carried out in a litter to sup- 
press the mutiny, but the tumultuous shouts of Otho's partisans so 
frightened the litter-bearers, that they threw the old man down and 
ran away. Galba, seeing the soldiers coming up, bent his head for- 
ward and bade them strike it off, if it were for the good of the people. 

Questions.— IS. Of Galba ? 19. Of the end of Nero ? W hat race ended with him ? 20. In 
what year did Galba ascend the throne ? How old was he then ? By what obstacles was 
he opposed? How was he killed? 



412 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 69 

They took him at his word, and the bloody head of the emperor was 
soon after exposed upon a lance to the sneers of the multitude. He 
reigned seven months. 

21. Otho. — a. d. 68. — The early life of Otho was disgraced by 
licentiousness and crime ; his brief enjoyment of power was marked 
by moderation and clemency. Yitellius had been proclaimed emperor 
by the legions in Germany, before the death of Galba ; and scarcely 
was Otho seated upon the throne, when he was summoned to lead the 
praetorian cohorts against their veteran brethren. He was defeated in 
battle, and fell on his own sword, after a reign of ninety-five days. 

22. Yitellitjs.— a. d. 09. — Yitellius had been long accustomed to 
the atmosphere of the court. He ministered to the pleasures of Tibe- 
rius in Caprsea; he drove a chariot for Caligula; he gamed with 
Claudius ; and he praised the singing of Nero. In all the corruptions, 
crimes, and prodigalities of the age, he excelled his masters. His sol- 
diers, in their march southward, committed every species of excess; 
and when he reached Rome, he made the whole city his camp, and 
filled all the houses with armed men. The miseries which the empire 
suffered at the hands of Vitellius were fortunately soon terminated. 
The legions in the east had scarcely acknowledged Galba, when they 
were called upon to ratify the usurpation of Otho. Now, when the 
cruel and voluptuous glutton, Vitellius, claimed their allegiance, they 
openly revolted, and proclaimed Vespasian, their own general, empe- 
ror. Vitellius attempted to make good his claims by the sword, but 
the lieutenant of Vespasian, while his master was arranging the affairs 
of the east, stormed the camp of the guards, took Vitellius prisoner, 
dragged him through the streets, and cast his mangled body into the 
Tiber. 

23. Vespasian. — a. d. 69. During five years Vespasian had pushed 
the Jewish war with vigor. The maritime towns of the Mediter- 
ranean had submitted; all Galilee* was subdued, and the general was 
just preparing for the siege of Jerusalem when the revolutions in the 
umpire changed the course of his destiny and recalled him to Rome. 

* At the city of Jotapata, in Galilee, he took Josephus prisoner. The captive, being brought 
into his presence, thus addressed him: ''I come to thee, O Vespasian, as the messenger of 
great tidings. Dost thou send me to Nero? Thou, O Vespasian, art Caesar and emperor, 
thou and this thy son." The Roman general did not then believe him ; but after the pro 
phecy was fulfilled he released Josephus from his bonds and treated him with great favor 
Josephus remained with Titus, and witnessed the destruction of Jerusalem. 

Questions. — 21. Who next ascended the throne? What caused his death? How long 
had he reigned? 22. By whom was he succeeded? When did Vitellius commence his 
reign? Who was proclaimed emperor by the people? To what miserable death was 
Vitellius doomed? 2-3. When did Vespasian succeed himf In what wars did Vespasian 
engage ? What occurred to recall him to Home ? 



a. d. 70.] JEEUSALEM BESIEGED. 413 

Leaving then the Jewish war in the hands of his son Titus, he returned 
to Italy by way of Egypt, and, having overcome his enemies, was 
acknowledged emperor by the senate and people. 

24. Jerusalem was built upon two mountains, and surrounded by 
three walls on every side, except where the rocks rose so precipitously 
as to be a natural defense. Mount Sion, the loftiest summit, wa8 
fortified by three towers, the most impregnable and beautiful of which 
was Antonia. A deep valley, through which flowed the sweet waters 
of Siloam separated it from Mount Acra, which bent toward it in the 
shape of the moon when it is horned. A third part of the city was 
Bezetha, separated likewise from Acra by a valley partly filled up, and 
defended by the outermost wall. The lofty towers which ran along 
the steep brow of Sion were built of white marble, cut in large blocks, 
joined so perfectly as to seem hewn out of the solid rock. 

25. "High above the city rose the temple, uniting the commanding 
etrength of a citadel with the splendor of a sacred edifice. It covered 
a space of a furlong on each side, and the precipitous sides of the 
rock were faced up to it on the east with huge blocks of stone. 
Passing the marble columns of dazzling whiteness which supported 
the splendid porticos of the outer court, the eye rested upon a lofty 
arch, covered with gold, through which glittered the gate of the tem- 
ple, sheeted with the same precious metal. Within, the golden can- 
dlestick spread out its flowering branches; the golden table supported 
the shew-bread, and the altar of incense flamed with its costly per- 
fume." The roof of the temple was set all over with sharp glittering 
spikes; the marble turrets reflected the beams of the sun with dazzling 
radiance, and at a distance "the whole temple looked literally like a 
mount of snow fretted with golden pinnacles." 

26. This beautiful but guilty city w r as occupied by three factions. 
Eleazar, with a party called the zealots, kept possession of the temple; 
John, who had been driven from Gischala, fortified himself in the 
lower town; and Simon, with his followers, defended Bezetha. Such 
was the city, such were its fortifications, and such its defenders, when 
Titus, in the spring of a. d. 70, at the time of the general assembly of 
the Jews to celebrate the feast of the passover, approached the devoted 
place and pitched his camp east of the vale of Oedron, upon the Mount 
of Olives. The efforts of the Jews to compel the Eomans to raise the 
siege were almost incredible. They burned the engines of the enemy, 

Questions. — 23. To whom did he commit the command of the Jewish war? By what 
authority was he then acknowledged emperor? 24, 25. Describe Jerusalem. 26. What 
factions existed there? Give their names and locations. In what year was the city 
besieged by Titus ? Where did he encamp with his army ? 



414: EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 70. 

and attacked the legions with such fury that Titus, quite dispirited, 
gave up the idea of taking the place by storm, and employed his sol- 
diers in constructing a wall which would prevent all egress from the 
gates. 

27. No sooner were the operations of the Romans intermitted than 
the factions in the city raged with tenfold fury; battles were fought 
within the walls; a company of assassins entered the temple and cut 
off Eleazar and his party in one general massacre; conflagrations 
destroyed great quantities of corn ; so that when the day had come to 
Jerusalem that "her enemies cast a trench about her and kept her in 
on every side," her own sons were lying like murdered victims upon 
her altars, and her little ones were perishing in the streets with famine. 
Portents and prodigies announced the coming doom. Swords glit- 
tered in the air; embattled armies seemed hurrying to combat in the 
sky ; the portal of the temple flew open, and a voice from the excel- 
lent glory pronounced, in no mortal tones, "Let us depart!" A ter- 
rific sound, as of a multitude rushing forth, was heard, and then an 
appalling silence reigned throughout the holy courts. 

28. The Jews converted these fearful admonitions into omens of 
speedy deliverance, and, disregarding the dreadful ravages of famine 
and pestilence, obstinately refused the offers of accommodation which 
Titus repeatedly made by the mouth of Josephus. The Romans, 
wrought to fury by the desperation of the Jews, made incessant 
attacks upon the walls, and finally gained possession of Antonia. At 
length the day approached in the revolution of ages, the tenth of 
August — the anniversary of that fatal day in which Nebuchadnezzar 
burned the temple of Solomon. The daily sacrifice had failed for 
want of men to offer it; and the Romans, having overturned the foun- 
dations of Antonia, began to ply their battering-rams upon the sacred 
walls of the temple. A Roman soldier in the tumult, actuated as by a 
divine fury, seized a smoking brand, and, climbing to the top of the 
portico, threw it into one of the courts; and soon the whole building 
was wrapped in flames. 

29. The wail of agony which the despairing Jews sent forth upon 
seeing the destruction of their temple, could not move the hearts of 
the infuriated Romans. Titus, unable to make himself heard in tho 
uproar, withdrew to the fort of Antonia, and, gazing upon the confla- 
gration, exclaimed, with a sigh, "The God of the Jews has fought 
against them ; to Him we owe our victory." The numbers who per- 
ished amounted to 1,000,000; the captives to 100,000. John and 

Questions.— 27, 28, 20. Give a detailed account of the taking of Jerusalem. 



a. a. 79.] VESPASIAN — TITUS. 415 

Simon were taken. The former was imprisoned for life; the latter 
was '' conveyed to Rome, to clank his chains at the chariot wheels of 
the conqueror." 

30. When Titus returned with his victorious army, the senate 
decreed a triumph to him and his father. Vespasian and his son 
entered Rome in the same triumphal car. Upon the standards and 
ensigns were painted all the events of the Jewish war. The green 
vales of Galilee, the vine-clad hills of Judea, and the blue waters of 
lake Gennesareth, encompassed and crossed by the Roman legions, 
were depicted in the liveliest colors ; while from the spreading can- 
vas fair Salem's towers and bulwarks displayed the Roman eagle ; 
and the golden gates and pinnacles of the temple glowed in the ruddy 
flames which terminated the tedious and bloody siege. The spoils of 
the conquered nation gave magnificence to the scene ; and the Book 
of the Law, wrapped in a rich golden tissue, was exposed to the curious 
eyes of the people. 

31. The venal inmates of the palace found, upon the accession of 
Vespasian, that truth and virtue were once more in fashion. Cruelties 
and crimes were discountenanced ; industry was encouraged ; and he 
was said to have founded and established the government of one thou- 
sand nations. Julius Agricola subdued the Britons, and a profound 
peace ensuing, the temple of Janus was closed for the fourth time. In 
the civil war with Vitellius, the capitol was burned. It was now 
rebuilt with the greatest magnificence. Vespasian loved a joke, and 
was exceedingly fond of money. On one occasion, the inhabitants of 
a city proposed to raise a statue in his honor. He held out his hand 
and said, with a smile, "Let this be the base of your statue; place 
your money here." He was the second emperor that died a natural 
death, and the first that was succeeded by his son. He reigned ten 
years. 

32. Titus. — a. d. 79. Though Titus, whom Tacitus calls " the 
delight of mankind," was a wise and beneficent sovereign, yet his 
short reign was filled with a series of disasters. In the first year 
occurred that dreadful eruption of Vesuvius, by which Herculaneum 
and Pompeii were destroyed.* The miserable fugitives who made 

* After an interval of extreme drought, the whole plain around Vesuvius was shaken as 
if by an earthquake. A column of black ashes arose into the air, hovered a few momenta 
over the devoted cities, and fell, burying the inhabitants in their dwellings, the priests at 

Questions.— 30. What triumph and honors awaited Titus and his father ? What is said of 
the Book of the Law? 31. Give an account of the reign of Vespasian. How many yeara 
did he reign ? By whom was he succeeded ? 32. When did Titus become emperor ? What 
is said of him ? What series of disasters occurred in his reign ? 



41 G EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 101 

their escape, found an asylum in Rome; but a pestilence soon after 
appeared, in which 10,000 died daily for a considerable period. A 
fire succeeded, which raged till a great number of buildings were 
destroyed. Titus gave liberally of the sums laid up by his father to the 
relief of the sufferers, and rebuilt the edifices which had been con- 
sumed, with increased magnificence. The famous Colosseum, begun 
by his father, was completed by his care. The sports of the dedication 
lasted 100 days. On the last day of the games, the emperor appeared 
dejected, and even shed tears. A fever ensued, which was rendered 
fatal by the immoderate use of the bath. He died in the same house 
where his father expired, after a reign of little more than two years. 

33. Domitian. — a. d. 81. Titus had named his brother, Domitian, 
as his heir, and both the senate and the army hailed his accession to 
the throne with the greatest joy. They soon, however, had cause to 
repent of their raptures. In the character of Domitian, the gloomy 
dissimulation of Tiberius seemed combined with the ridiculous assump- 
tions of Caligula, and the cruel levities of Nero. The usual train of 
accusations, proscriptions, and executions kept the best families of 
Rome in constant mourning ; while the author of their calamities 
demanded golden statues, and the worship of the gods. The Roman 
arms, too, were unsuccessful in the north, and several disgraceful 
treaties were concluded with the barbarians. 

34. These were his public acts: in private, he varied the disgusting 
round of his pleasures by catching flies, and nailing them to the wall 
with bodkins. The empire, after suffering in all its departments for 
fifteen years, was at length relieved of this monster by the hand of 
the assassin. The senate decreed that his statues should be taken 
down, his name erased from the annals, and his funeral omitted. He 
was the last of the twelve Caesars. Neeva. — a. d. 96. — The first of 
the five good emperors of Rome was a pattern of justice and clemency. 
He reigned, however, not quite two years, during which time no im- 
portant events occurred. 

35. a. d. 200. The Five good Emperors. — Tacitus and Plu- 
tarch. — The life of Nerva, as it occurred, has also been given in the 

their altars, and the flying multitudes in their fields. Darkness sank down upon tho 
plains, and for three days no light was visible but the lurid flames of the volcano. 

Questions.— 32. What acts of liberality distinguished him? How long did he reign? 
What caused his death? 33,34. Who was his successor? When did Domitian become 
emperor? Give his cnaracter. What was the condition of Rome during his reign ? How 
long did he reign ? What was the decree of the senate respecting him ? Who succeeded 
him ? In what year was that ? What is said of the reign of Nerva ? 



A.D.117.] TRAJAN — ADRiAN. 417 

preceding chapter. Before his death, he caused Trajan to be acknow- 
ledged Csesar* by the army and senate. Trajan was with the army in 
Germany at the time of his adopted father's decease, but immediately 
marched to Rome, where he was received with the usual congratula- 
tions. Plutarch, t his tutor, wrote him a letter, entreating him to fol- 
low the counsels he had received in early youth. The emperor did 
not, like Nero, disgrace the name of his preceptor. " He was equally 
great as a ruler, a general, and a man. He conquered the warlike 
Dacians, and, to facilitate his entrance into their country, built a stu- 
pendous bridge across the Danube, the ruins of which continue to this 
day. The dominions of the empire were thus extended beyond the 
bounds of any of the former great monarchies. 

36. The rejoicings at Rome upon the return of the victorious empe- 
ror lasted four months, during which no less than 10,000 gladiators 
fought in the amphitheater for the amusement of the multitude. The 
Pillar of Trajan, which may yet be seen in the grass-grown Forum, was 
erected in commemoration of this event. After adorning Rome with 
many public buildings, Trajan turned his arms against the Armenians 
and Parthians. He overran the greater part of what had been the 
Assyrian empire, and, throwing a bridge across the Tigris, followed the 
track of Alexander to the Persian Gulf. Regretting that his age for- 
bade the thought of his invading India, he left the care of the army to 
Adrian, his nephew, and returned to Syria. He died in Cilicia, after 
a reign of nearly twenty years. 

37. Adeian. — a. d. 117. The first care of Adrian was to conclude 
a peace with the Persians, making the Euphrates the boundary of the 
empire on the east. On his return to Rome, the senate decreed him a 
triumph ; he refused the honor for himself, but caused the statue of 

* The emperor was styled "Augustus;" the heir expectant was dignified with the title 
of " Caesar." 

t Plutarch was a native of Beotia. He was a student at Delphi, when Nero went to 
Greece to display his wonderful skill in horsemanship and music, a. d. 66; he must at this 
time, therefore, have been an old man. He visited Italy when quite young, and probably 
remained there till Domitian, by a public decree, banished all philosophers from the coun- 
try. He wrote many works, some of which are lost, but his " Parallel Lives" still exist, as 
models of biography. Tacitus published his history some time in Trajan's reign. It began 
with the accession of Galba, and continued to the death of Domitian, comprising a period of 
27 years, full of important events and sudden revolutions. It was written in 36 books, only 
five of which are now extant. His Annals are recommended to the attention of every stu- 
dent. Tacitus was the son-indaw of Agricola, and the friend of the younger Pliny. 

Questions. — 35. Whom did Nerva pronounce Csesar before his death? What events 
occurred in the reign of Trajan ? 36. What rejoicings at Rome took place ? What success- 
ful wars did Trajan undertake ? Where did he die? How long had he reigned ? 3T. By 
whom w&s he succeeded ? When did that event occur ? What was the first act of Adrian ? 
18* 



418 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 138 

Trajan to be carried in the pompous procession of the victorious army. 
Adrian was remarkable for every manly and scientific accomplishment. 
He was equally skillful in the war or the chase; he was well versed in 
mathematics and medicine ; he wrote beautifully both in prose and 
verse; he was a proficient in drawing and painting; he was an ele- 
gant orator ; a letter singer than Nero ; and his moral qualities were 
equal to his accomplishments, if we except the envy and vainglory 
which his rare endowments and the adulation of the people were 
calculated to excite. 

38. It was his maxim that an emperor ought to imitate the sun, by 
dispensing favors to all parts of the earth. Accordingly, he spent 
thirteen years in traversing- his dominions. Finding that the bridge 
of Trajan proved as great a convenience to the barbarous tribes as to 
the armies of the empire, he caused it to be broken down ; passing 
from Dacia through Germany and Holland, he sailed to Britain, where 
he ordered a wall to be erected for the protection of his subjects from 
the Scots ; thence he journeyed south through Gaul and Spain, and 
thence to Rome. He visited Asia Minor ; wintered at Athens; sailed 
for Sicily; examined Mount Etna, and directed his course to Africa, 
where he rebuilt the city of Carthage, and called it Adrianople. 
When he returned to Rome to take up his abode, the joy of the people 
knew no bounds. 

39. During his reign, an impostor, called the " Son of a Star," 
claiming to be the Messiah, persuaded the Jews to revolt. Three 
years were employed in bringing them again into subjection. As a 
punishment, every sacred place was studiously profaned. A temple 
was built to Jupiter on Mount Sion; a statue of Venus set up in the 
place of crucifixion; and the grotto of Bethlehem consecrated to 
Adonis. The Jews were forbidden the sight of Jerusalem, and no 
descendant of Abraham was permitted to enter the city, except upon 
the memorable tenth of August, the anniversary of its destruction. 
Adrian died of a dropsy, after a reign of twenty-one years. 

40. Antoninus. — a. d. 138. Antoninus, surnamed the Pious, had 
been made Caesar by the late emperor, and now peaceably ascended 
the throne. His long and quiet reign allowed almost one generation 
of Romans to pass away without the experience of distressing wars 
abroad, and arbitrary executions at home. Even the Christians, 
whose resolute refusals to worship idols kept the Romans constantly 

Questions. — 37, 38, 39. Give a description of his character? What events distinguished 
his reign? When did he die? How long had he reigned? 40. Who was made Caesar 
before his death? Give an account of the reign of Antoninus Pius. 



a. d. 180.] MARCUS AURELTUS. 419 

irritated, came in for a share in the clemency of this excellent monarch, 
who proclaimed religious toleration by a letter from his own pen. 
Such was his reputation for wisdom and virtue, that princes came from 
beyond the bounds of the Roman empire to make him the arbiter of 
their differences. He reigned twenty-two years. 

41. Marcus Atjijelitts. — a. d. 161. Aurelius, the son-in-law of 
Antoninus, claimed his descent from Numa. He was a stoic philoso- 
pher, and a wise and virtuous monarch. He took for his colleague 
Lucius Verus, a man whose vices served to show in stronger relief 
the perfections of Aurelius. The two emperors were scarcely seated 
upon the throne when the empire was attacked on every side by its 
barbarous neighbors. Verus went to the east to repel the Parthians, 
but stopped at Antioch while the war was carried on by his lieu- 
tenants. They were successful, and Verus returned in triumph. 
Rome had, however, little cause to rejoice. She was visited succes- 
sively by a vicious, cruel emperor ; a raging pestilence ; clouds of 
devouring locusts ; dreadful earthquakes ; distressing inundations ; and 
a wasting famine. 

42. The priests, to avert the anger of the gods, offered the most 
costly sacrifices in vain, till finally the Romans, attributing all their 
calamities to the impieties of the Christians, commenced a dreadful 
persecution, in which Justin Martyr and the venerable Polycarp, 
bishop of Smyrna, fell victims to superstitious fury. Aurelius marched 
to the north to repel the invasions of the Vandals and others, who 
constantly harassed the frontiers, a. d. 180. He died of the plague 
at Vienna, expressing with his last breath his solicitude for the future 
welfare of his country and of his son. He reigned almost nineteen 
years. 

43. Five bad Empekoes. — During the last twenty years of this cen- 
tury five emperors assumed the imperial purple : Commodus, Pertinax, 
Severus, Niger, and Albinus. Commodus* had accompanied Aurelius 
on his expedition against the northern tribes, but no sooner was his 

* With the reign of Commodus properly commenced the Decline of the Roman Empire. 
The remaining events of its history are so exceedingly complex that it is impossible to 
condense them into the brief limits of this work without creating confusion in the mind of 
the pupil. For a true picture of the times the reader is referred to " Gibbon's History of 
the Decline and Fall of the Eoraan Empire." 

Questions. — 10. What particular letter "did he write? How long did he reign? 41. In 
what year did Marcus Aurelius ascend the throne ? What was his character? Whom did 
he take for a colleague? What distresses did Eome suffer? 42. To what cause dij the 
priests attribute the wars and judgments that were visited upon Rome? Who became 
martyrs to this superstition? What caused the death of Aurelius? How many years did 
he reign? In what year did he die? 43. How many emperors assumed the purple during 
the last twenty years of this century ? What century is meant? Name the five emperors. 



420 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 192 

father dead, than, impatient to revel in the pleasures of the capital, 
he concluded a disgraceful peace with the barbarians, and hastened to 
Rome. The senate, army, and people acknowledged him as emperor 
and Augustus, in consideration of his father's virtues. He soon proved 
that he had no merit of his own, being extremely ignorant of every 
thing a monarch ought to know, and exceedingly indifferent to the 
duties of an emperor, at the same time that he was eminently skillful 
in useless accomplishments, and exceedingly fond of low company and 
sensual pleasures. 

44. He drew the bow and threw the javelin with wonderful address, 
always killing the animal at which he aimed, though running at full 
speed; he cut off the heads of an hundred ostriches in their swiftest 
motions, with arrows headed in the shape of a half moon ; a bird upon 
the wing could not escape his unerring aim ; and he came off vic- 
torious in 735 gladiatorial combats. At first he left the administration 
of affairs to the prsefect of the praetorian guards ; and after this mon- 
ster was slain by his own soldiers, a Phrygian slave held the reins of 
the government, while the monarch became himself a slave to the 
worst passions of human nature, and distinguished himself by over- 
coming wild beasts in the amphitheater. The senate showed their 
degradation by styling him the Hercules of Rome, and offering to 
change the name of the eternal city to Colonia Commodiana. These 
were his public acts. 

45. In the sacred hours of retirement he indulged in all the glut 
tony, sensuality, and frivolity that disgraced Domitian, so that in one 
may be seen the counterpart of the other. He kept a list of such per 
sons as he designed for destruction ; and his favorite mistress, Marcia, 
having found her name among the proscribed, administered poison, 
and thus the Roman world was delivered from its odious master, after 
submitting to his cruelties twelve years. The friends and assistants of 
Marcia wrapped up the body of Commodus as a bale of useless fur- 
niture and carried it out through the drunken guards, who were first 
made acquainted with the murder of their monarch by the shouts 
which hailed his successor. 

46. Peetinax. — a. d. 192. This prince forms an exception among 
the five bad emperors. His reign, however, was so very brief that his 
character as a sovereign was not fully developed. The sudden and 
striking changes that took place in his life gave him the surname of 

Quenlions. — 43, 44, 45. Give a general outline of the character of Commodus. What was 
his fate? 46. Who was his successor? In what year did Pertinax succeed hint? What 
»ccount can you give of Pertinax ? 



A. d. 192.] THE EMPIRE SOLD. 421 

11 The Tennis Ball of Fortune." His father was a dealer in charcoal ; 
he himself had been a schoolmaster, a lawyer, a soldier, a captain, a 
consul, the commander of a legion, and praefect of the city. When 
the conspirators came to his house in the night, after the murder of 
Commodus, he supposed they were sent by the tyrant to put him to 
death, and cheerfully prepared for execution ; and it was not without 
reluctance that he suffered the praetorian guards to clothe him in the 
purple ; but the obedient senate sanctioning his election, he was pro- 
claimed emperor on the night before the first of January, a. d. 193. 
A few days of severe discipline, however, displeased the emperor' 
makers, and, disdaining any secret conspiracies or private contrivances, 
they marched into the palace three hundred strong, slew their mon- 
arch, cut off his head, and carried it back to the camp. He reigned 
not quite three months. 

47. The Roman Empire Sold. — The praetorians then offered the 
empire to the highest bidder. The father-in-law of Pertinax, and 
Didius, the foster-brother of Marcus Aurelius, were the only com- 
petitors. The former made magnificent promises ; the latter bestowed 
substantial presents. The guards accordingly proclaimed Didius em- 
peror, and accompanied him in a body to the senate-house, where he 
made a very short and comprehensive speech : "Fathers, you want an 
emperor, and I am the fittest person you can choose.'''' The senators, 
convinced by the eloquence of Didius or the menacing looks of his 
guards, acquiesced in this sentiment, but the people cursed him as he 
passed the streets. 

48. The legions of Syria, Illyria, and Britain refused to confirm the 
election of the praetorians. Each party chose its own monarch. 
Niger was acknowledged by all the Romans and tributary princes of 
Asia-; Albinus was proclaimed in Britain, and Severus marched from 
Illyria directly to Rome. All the towns and garrisons declared for 
him; the praetorian guards forsook their wealthy prince to join his 
standard; and the senate decreed that Didius should be slain, and 
Severus reign in his stead. He reigned 66 days. The executioners 
ied the unfortunate monarch into one of the secret baths and struck 
off his head ; and Severus took peaceable possession of the palace of 
the Caesars. 

49. Severus. — The first act of Severus was to banish the- praetorian 
auctioneers one hundred miles from Rome. Then, having promised 

Questions.— 46. How long had he reigned ? 47. How then was the Roman empire dis- 
posed of? Give an account of Didius. 48. After his death, who took possession of the palaca 
of the Csesars? 49. What was the first act of Severus? 



£22 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 211. 

the senate to rule with clemency and justice, he seized the children of 
the officers in the east as hostages, and marched against Niger. The 
battle between these two rivals was fought upon the plains of Issus, 
on the very spot where Alexander and Darius met, more than 500 
years before. Niger was defeated and slain. Severus then returned 
to settle the contest with Albinus. A tremendous battle was fought 
near the present city of Lyons, and Albinus, being taken prisoner, 
soon followed his colored brother, Niger, to the land of shades ! 

50. a. d. 300. Twelve Emperors. — Thirty Tyrants. — Many 
nobles of Spain and Gaul were put to death for having taken the part 
of Albinus; and 29 senators also fell victims to his sanguinary orders. 
Severus was a great warrior. The Parthians, who continued hostilities 
in the east, suffered a severe defeat at his hand, and Seleucia and 
Babylon were taken. His next foreign war was in Britain. The 
Picts and Scots were driven back into their mountain fastnesses, and 
a wall twelve feet high was built across the island, to prevent their 
future incursions. Severus died at York, heart-broken by the quarrels 
of his children. He reigned nearly eighteen years. 

51. Caracalla and Geta. — a. d. 211. The two sons of Severus 
succeeded him. The first act of Caracalla was to assassinate Geta in 
his mothers arras, and every subsequent exercise of power showed 
the same sanguinary spirit. All who had been connected with Geta 
shared his fate, till the number of victims amounted to 20,000. The 
people were forced to suffer in silence, for Caracalla, like Sylla, 
attached the soldiers to his interest by the most liberal donations. He 
professed to admire the character of Alexander the Great, and with 
ridiculous affectation inclined his head to one side in imitation of that 
monarch. He made an expedition into Asia, where he visited the 
grave of Achilles, and sacrificed one of his freedmen, to imitate the 
grief of Homer's hero over Patroclus. 

52. Having treacherously seized the king of Armenia, he was 
involved in a war with that people, in which he suffered defeat. 
After this he went to Alexandria, where he made an offering of his 
ornaments at the tomb of Alexander, and consecrated the dagger with 
which he had slain Geta in the temple of Serapis. His reign lasted 
more than six years, during which he did every thing to degrade the 
throne of the Caesars, and many things to increase the magnificence of 

Questions.— 49. What war was waged ? Where was a battle fought ? What was the fate of 
Niger? Where was the next battle fought? W r hat was the end of Albinus? 50. In what 
character was Severus distinguished ? What wars were successfully prosecuted by him ? 
How many years did he reign ? 51,52. Who succeeded him? What was the character of 
Caracalla? Give an account of his crimes. How did he secure the soldiers to his interest? 



L d. 222.} ALEXANDER — MAX IMIN. 423 

Rome. Some of the most splendid structures that graced the capitol 
were raised by his order. Maorinus. — a. d. 217. Macrinus, the 
praefect of the praetorians, who murdered Caracalla, was made emperor 
by the army, and reigned little more than a year. He was succeeded 
by the son of Caracalla. 

53. Heliogabalus. — a. d. 218. Heliogabalus, the son of Caracalla, 
though only fourteen years old, was, by the intrigues of his mother, 
proclaimed emperor in the east. He was a vicious boy ; a disgusting 
glutton ; and an odious sovereign. His actions were whimsical and 
cruel. He gave a supper to eight blind men, eight lame men, eight 
deaf men, eight black men, and eight men so fat that they could 
hardly sit in their chairs. Sometimes he smothered his guests with 
roses, and sometimes let wild beasts loose upon them. Sometimes his 
chariot was drawn by elephants, sometimes by lions, sometimes by 
dogs, and sometimes by women. The soldiers finally revolted to his 
cousin, Alexander, and Heliogabalus was thrown into the Tiber. He 
reigned little more than three years. 

54. Alexander. — a. d. 222. Alexander was an excellent monarch, 
but the eternal city had already passed the crisis of her fate, and 
nothing could stop her decline. The Persians revolted in the east, 
and, having overthrown the Parthian dynasty of Arsacidae, defied the 
power of the Romans. The northern nations began to pour down 
upon the more fertile portions of the empire. Alexander defeated the 
Persians, and then marched into Germany, where his attempts to 
restore discipline occasioned a mutiny in which he was slain, after a 
short but glorious reign of thirteen years. 

55. The army then elected Maximin, a Thracian giant, who became 
the most cruel tyrant upon earth. During the next five years, five 
emperors rose by treason and fell by conspiracy, while the empire was 
assailed by the Persians, and enfeebled by seditions and civil wars. 
The power of the senate was gone; the virtue of the people had been 
buried in the grave of their patriotism; the army alone possessed any 
authority, and this was seldom exercised for the good of the body 
politic. About the middle of this century, the Goths commenced their 
devastations in Thrace, and spread ruin on every side. 

Questions. — 52. How long did his reign continue? What account is given of Macrinus? 
How long did he reign? Who succeeded him? 53. Who was Heliogabalus? How old 
was he when proclaimed emperor in the east? Give an account of him. What was his 
fate? Who succeeded him? 54. When did Alexander become monarch ? What is said of 
him? What counteracted the healthful influence of his reign ? How long did he wear the 
ensigns of royalty ? 55. Whowas elected by the army? What followed during the next 
five years ? What were the Goths then doing in Thrace? 



424: EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 272 

56. Thirty Tyrants usurp tiie Throne. — From the resemblance 
between the miseries of this period and those which Athens suffered 
under the dominion of Sparta, it has been said that thirty tyrants 
assumed the imperial purple; this exact number, however, cannot be 
traced ; and among the emperors who swayed the Roman scepter, 
from a. d. 250 to 300 must be reckoned the good Valerian, the valiant 
Aurelian, the venerable Tacitus, and the upright Probus. It vou.d 
be tedious to relate or read all the conspiracies, cruelties, and crimes 
which raised, disgraced, and dethroned the thirty monarchs. Only a 
few of the most worthy will be mentioned, in whose reigns important 
events occurred. 

57. The good Valerian was made emperor by the army in a. d. 253. 
In his reign the empire was attacked on all sides. The Franks, the 
Goths, the Alemanni, and the Persians vexed the frontiers with con- 
tinual incursions, and Valerian was compelled to commit Europe to 
the care of his vicious son, Gallienus, while he marched into Asia to 
oppose Sapor, king of Persia. He was defeated, and taken prisoner 
by his enemies. " For seven years the Roman emperor bowed him- 
self down, that his body might serve as a stepping-stone to the Persian 
king when he mounted on horseback; he was at last flayed alive; and 
his skin, stuffed in the form of a human figure, and dyed with scarlet, 
was preserved in a temple in Persia." The wicked Gallienus made no 
effort to free his father from captivity, nor to avenge his death. 

58. Aurelian. — When Aurelian ascended the throne, a. d. 270, 
barbarians, famine, pestilence, conspiracies, and proscriptions had 
swept from the empire one-half of its inhabitants ; the western pro- 
vinces were in a state of revolt, and the eastern had been brought 
under the dominion of the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra.* 
She was the widow of Odenatus, a prince who strove to deliver Vale- 
rian from Sapor, and had received from the Romans the title of Augus- 
tus. After his death, Zenobia, like Semiramis, assumed the command 
of his dominions, and by her surpassing attractions and uncommon 
abilities held beneath her sway the voluptuous Syrians, and the fierce 
Arnbs of the desert. 

* Palmyra, or " Tadmor in the wilderness," was built by Solomon in an oasis of ii» 
Syrian desert, 140 miles east ef Damascus. Situated as it was in a green and fertile spot, 
Bheltered by high mountains, on the great route from India, Persia, and Mesopotamia to 
Syria, it became the resting-place of caravans, and was soon enriched with all the treasures 
of the east. 

Questions.— 56. What is said about the thirty tyrants? 57. In what year was the good 
Valerian made emperor? What difficulties menaced his reign? To whom did he commit 
the care of Europe ? What indignities and cruelties did he suffer seven years ? 53. When did 
Aurelian ascend the throne ? What then was the coudition of Konie ? Who was Zenobia 1 



A. d. 284.] DIOCLESIAN. 425 

59. Aurelian, determining to humble her power, marched with hia 
army into Asia. He found the city of Palmyra defended by warlike 
engines of great power, and when he summoned the queen to sur- 
render, he received a reply so spirited that all his anger was roused. 
He surrounded the city, cut off her supplies, and defeated three armies 
which were marching to her relief. Finally, Zenobia attempted to fly 
upon her dromedaries, but was taken prisoner at the fords of the 
Euphrates. She was carried to Rome, and walked in the triumph of 
the conqueror, loaded with chains of gold and costly jewels. Her sons 
married distinguished Roman ladies, and she lived in splendor the 
remainder of her life. 

60. The characters of the Roman emperors seemed to exercise no 
control over the decrees of fate. The purple was but the passport to 
the poniard; the good and the bad, when clothed with authority, 
were alike exposed to the assassin's knife. Aurelian fell by the hand 
of a general whom he had always loved and trusted ; and the army, 
with a respect which had long been unknown among the legions, 
wrote to the senate, begging the fathers to place the emperor among 
the number of the gods, and appoint a successor. For eight months, 
the empire was quiet without an emperor. Finally, Tacitus, a senator 
descended from the eminent historian, was persuaded to assume the 
diadem of the Csesars. He reigned, however, only two hundred days. 

61. The two Augtjsti and the two Caesars. — The next emperor 
we shall notice is Dioclesian, who, having been elected by the soldiers, 
chose Maximian, a brave and uncultivated officer, for his colleague. 
Finding, after the lapse of a few years, that the empire needed a sove- 
reign in every part, these two monarchs adopted each a soldier as his 
successor. Galerius married the daughter of Dioclesian, and Constan- 
tins married the daughter of Maximian. The two emperors were 
called Augustii ; the two heirs-expectant, Caesars. The empire was 
then parceled out to the monarchs. Dioclesian and his son-in-law 
took that portion east of the Adriatic, while Maximian and his Csesar 
shared the west. The barbarians were thus kept in awe, and the em- 
pire was for a time prosperous and happy. Dioclesian defeated the 
Persians, and forced them to conclude a treaty, by which they resigned 
all the country west of the Tigris. 



Questions.— 59. Upon what did Aurelian determine? Give an account of his measures 
and success. What further is stated of Zenobia? (SO. By whose hand did Aurelian fall ? 
What state of things followed? Who succeeded Aurelian? How long did Tacitus reign? 
61. To what p sition was Dioclesian raised? Who was Maximian? What compact was 
made? How was it strengthened? What were the two emperors called? What name 
was giver? to the two heirs expectant? How was the empire divided ? 



426 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 305. 

62. a. d. 400. constantine tiie great removes the seat 
of Government to Constantinople. — Theodosius divides the Em- 
pire. — Notwithstanding the nine bloody persecutions which successive 
generations of Christians had endured, the leaven of the Gospel had 
been constantly at work in the empire, and many persons of rank and 
consequence professed the doctrines of the cross. In the year a. d. 
303, Dioclesian issued an edict against the Christians, in consequence 
of which the most dreadful persecution raged for ten years. The 
churches were pulled down; the Scriptures were burned; and such 
numbers of people perished, that at last the murderers declared that 
the Christian name and superstition were rooted out of the empire. 
This was the last persecution of the Christians by the Romans. In 
the midst of these scenes of slaughter, Dioclesian and Maximian 
triumphed at Rome, and once more regaled the multitude with the 
combats of gladiators and wild beasts. 

63. This was the last triumph the imperial city ever saw. Her 
days of victory were nearly passed, the weakness of age had come 
upon her, and the hour of her dissolution was rapidly approaching. 
Not long after, Dioclesian resigned his authority, and required Maxi- 
mian to do the same. Dioclesian retired to the southern part of Aus- 
tria, and Maximian to the southern part of Italy. Constantius and 
Galerius having thus become the Augnstii, two new Csesars were 
chosen. Constantius, however, died at York, in Britain, within two 
years after his accession to power, and the array immediately saluted 
his son, Constantine, as emperor. Galerius and the two Cassars 
refused to ratify the act; and Maxentius, son of Maximian, being 
invested by the senate with the imperial dignity, called his father from 
retirement to give weight to his authority. 

64. There were thus six competitors for the empire ; and a scene of 
contention followed, scarcely paralleled in the annals of Rome. Maxi- 
mian quarreled with his son, and was put to death. Galerius died not 
long after, which reduced the number of aspirants to four. Maxentius 
speedily commenced open hostilities, and Constantine, at the head of 
a powerful army, marched toward Rome. During this journey, that 
famous change took place in his religion or politics, which resulted in 
the overthrow of paganism, and the establishment of Christianity as 
the religion of the empire. One evening, while employed in medita- 

Q'textions. — 62. Give an account, of the progress of Christianity. In what year did Dio- 
clesian issue an edict against Christianity ? Give a history of the persecution. 6S. What 
is lurther stated of Dioclesian ? Of Maximian ? What is said of Constantius ? Of Galerius ! 
64. What scene of contention is depicted? What caused the overthrow of paganism ? 



A. d. 323.] CONSTANTINE. 427 

tion upon the conflicting opinions which agitated mankind, he sent up 
his ejaculations to Heaven for divine direction. As if in answer to hia 
prayer, a luminous cross suddenly appeared above the declining sun, 
bearing the inscription, "Iff this, overcome." The same night a 
vision confirmed the miracle, and Constantino became a. convert to 
Christianity. A royal standard was made to resemble that seen in the 
sky, and carried before him as an ensign of victory and celestial pro- 
tection. Maxentius was defeated, and drowned in the Tiber. The 
competitors were thus reduced to three. 

65. Constantine entered Rome, and, disclaiming the adulation which 
the servile Romans offered, set up a cross at the right hand of his 
statues, declaring that he owed all his success to a superior power. 
He restored the authority of the senate, reformed abuses, and banished 
the prcetorian guards. He then marched to Milan, where he formed 
an alliance with one of the Caesars, and gave him his sister in mar- 
riage; the other Caesar was overthrown and slain, so that only two 
rivals remained of the six. In the year 323,* a battle was fought 
between these two. Constantine was victorious, and became sole 
monarch of the empire, after eighteen years of contention and civil 
war. Being now possessed of unlimited power, he issued an edict 
that in all the provinces of the empire the orders of the bishops should 
be obeyed ; and a general council, assembled at his request, condemned 
the " Arian heresy." Perceiving the necessity of fixing his residence 
in the center of his dominions, or wishing to rival the fame of Romu- 
lus, Constantine formed the design of removing the seat of government 
to the spot where the " Golden Horn " of the Bosphorus encircled the 
oft-conquered and reconquered Byzantium. 

66. With the wealth of the world at his command, nothing of course 
was neglected which could contribute to the splendor of the new 
capital. Magnificent churches, palaces, and private dwellings sprang 
up with almost magical rapidity; while baths and gardens, parks and 
private walks, exhibited all the refinements of eastern luxury. The 
court followed the monarch to the rising city of Constantinople ; and 
Rome, who had suffered so much from a multitude of emperors, now 
saw herself deserted by the one who had concentrated all authority in 
himself. These were the principal events of the reign of Constantine. 
In his old age he was guilty of great cruelty, and his conduct during 

* Alexander became monarch of the world, 323 b. c. Constantine sole emperor, 323 a. d. 

Questions— 64. What evidence, if any, did Constantine give of Christianity ? 65. How 
did he become sole monarch of the empire ? What edict did he issue ? What induced him 
to change the seat of government ? 66. What is said of the building and growth of Constan 
tiiiople ? What is said of Constantine in his old age ? What further is said of his conduct ! 



428 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 361. 

his whole life stamps him as a political rather than a pious advocate 
of Christianity. 

67. CONSTANTINE, CoNSTANS, AND CONSTANTIUS. A. D. 337. On 

the death of Constantine, his dominions were divided between his 
three sons, youths, who, without inheriting the virtues of their father, 
imitated his relentless cruelty, and added to it the vices of a voluptu- 
ous court. With the exception of two cousins, these princes destroyed 
all the male members of the Constantine family, and then turned tlieir 
arms upon one another. Constantine was dethroned and slain within 
three years after the death of his father, by his brother Constans, 
who, ten years later, suffered a similar fate from the hand of his own 
general. Constantius, being thus left sole emperor, called his cousin, 
Julian, to a share of power. To escape the jealous fury which 
destroyed all his relations, Julian had buried himself in study and 
retirement, but upon being clothed with the title and power of a 
Caesar, he showed himself an able and valiant general. His success in 
a war with the Sarmatians roused the latent envy of Constantius, and 
the legions of the west having proclaimed him emperor, the nations 
beheld again with terror the marshaling of armies for a civil war. 
The death of Constantius averted the threatened danger, and Julian 
peaceably ascended the throne. 

68. Julian the Apostate. — a. d. 361. The new Augustus had 
little reason to love a religion which the children of Constantine had 
professed, and his hatred of Christianity was immediately shown by 
his attempt to re-establish paganism. To disprove the prophecy of 
Christ, he attempted to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. His impi- 
ous design was frustrated by the hand of Providence. " Horrible balls 
of fire breaking out from the foundation, with frequent and reiterated 
attacks, rendered the place inaccessible to the workmen ; the victo 
rious element continuing in this manner, seemed obstinately bent to 
drive them to a distance, and the hopeless attempt was abandoned." 

69. Julian was killed in battle with the Persians, after a reign of 16 
months. Jovian, one of his domestics, was proclaimed emperor by the 
soldiers. He gave up the cities which had been taken from the Per- 
sians, and conducted the Romans in safety back to Antioch, where he 
had only time to revoke the decrees against the Christians, when he 
also died. Valentinian, commander of his body-guard, was proclaimed 

Questions. — 67. When did he die ? What division took place after his death ? Give the 
character of the three brothers. Who was Julian ? How was he called to govern ? 
68. What did Julian undertake to do? How did he attempt to disprove the words of 
Christ? What was the result? 69. By whom was Julian killed? Who succeeded him? 
Give an account of Jovi.in's course. Who became his successor? 



A. D. 395.] THE EMPIRE DIVIDED. 429 

his successor. He divided the empire, giving to his brother, Valeria 
the dominion of the east, while he took up his residence at Milan, as 
monarch of the west. Wars with the northern tribes occupied the 
time of both emperors. After a reign of twelve yea^s, Yalentinian 
died, leaving the scepter to his son, Gratian, then a youth of 17. The 
Huns now came forth from the wilds of Scythia, upon their work of 
destruction.* 

70. The Goths, intimidated by the invasion of a nation more bar- 
barous than themselves, entreated the emperor, Valens, to grant them 
lands on the southern side of the Danube. The request was acceded 
to, on certain conditions ; and a million of savages were thus settled 
in Thrace. The treachery of a Roman governor excited them to revolt, 
and Valens fell a victim to their vengeance. • Two-thirds of his army 
perished in battle, and the country was ravaged to the very gates of 
Constantinople. The young Gratian advanced from the west too late 
to save the life of his uncle, but in season to rescue the capital from 
the invaders. Feeling his inability to sustain the weight of an empire 
tottering to its fall, he called in Theodosius, a native of Spain, to his 
assistance, and gave to him the empire of the east. 

71. In four years, Theodosius, by his wisdom and firmness, subdued 
the Goths, and received great numbers of them into the Roman armies. 
After the death of Gratian, Theodosius married Galla, the beautiful 
daughter of the deceased emperor, and became the last sole monarch 
of the empire. He visited Italy. The idols which had so long been 
worshiped in the imperial city were thrown down ; the images were 
defaced, and the temples deserted, to give place to the less imposing 
forms of Christian worship. Before his death, Theodosius divided the 
empire between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius.t It was never 
after re-united, and the subsequent pages will be devoted to the his- 
tory of the Western Empire. 

72. Theodosius died in the month of January, a. d. 395, and before 
the opening of spring, the Gothic nation was in arms. The barriers 
of the Danube were opened, and the savage warriors of Scythia 

* See map No. I. 

t Rufinus, a Gaul, governed the councils of Arcadius; while Stilicho, a Vandal, directed 
the administration of Honorius. 

Questions.— §§. With whom did Valentinian divide the empire? What is said of Valen- 
tinian? To whom did he leave his scepter? What then did the Huns begin ? 70. What 
request did the Goths make? With what success? Why did the Goths revolt? What 
became of Valens? What then took place? Why did Gratian associate Theodosius with 
him? 71. Did Theodosius succeed against the Goths? How and when? After the death 
of Gratian what did Theodosius do? How did he divide his empire? 72. When did ho 
die ? What destruction came after? 



430 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. d. 410 

" rolled their ponderous wagons over the broad and icy back of the 
indigLant river." The fertile fields of Greece were covered with a 
deluge of barbarians, who massacred the men, and drove away the 
beautiful females, with the cattle of the flaming villages. 

73. a. d. 500. Italy plundered by Goth, Vandal, and Hun. 
— Augustultjs, last Empeeoe. — Alabic's theee Invasions. — Between 
the years 400 and 403, Alaric, at the head of his savage legions, 
invaded Italy. Stilicho, the able and faithful general of Honorius, 
defeated him, and finally hired him to enter the service of the Romans. 
In 408, Alaric, not having received the stipulated sums, again led his 
army into the garden of Europe. The queen of the world purchased 
her safety with the treasures of the capitol. During a period of 619 
years, the seat of the empire had never been violated by the presence 
of a foreign enemy; but when, in 410, the king of the Goths crossed 
the Po, spread hi armys along the banks of the Tiber, seized the port 
of Ostia, and threatened to destroy the magazines of corn, the terror 
of famine overcame the pride of the senate, and they assented to Ala- 
ric's proposal of placing a new emperor upon the throne of the unwor- 
thy Honorius. The gates of the city were thrown open, and Attalus, 
the man whom Alaric had selected, was clothed in the pnrple of the 
Caesars, and conducted by Gothic guards to the palace of Augustus and 
Trajan. 

74. But Attalus wanted the spirit to command, and the docility to 
obey. Alaric became tired of his puppet-king, and the next year 
stripped him of his royal robes, and sent them to Honorius, who had 
shut himself up in Ravenna. The king of the Goths, no longer dis- 
sembling his appetite for plunder and revenge, now appeared in arms 
under the walls of the capital ; the senate were unable to guard against 
the treachery of their domestics; a gate was silently opened, and the 
inhabitants were roused from their slumbers by the tremendous sound 
of the Gothic trumpet. 1163 years after the founding of Rome, the 
" eternal city " was sacked and plundered by the savage tribes of Ger- 
many and Scythia. The gold and jewels of the nobles were first 
secured; the massy furniture and silken w T ardrobes of the great were 
piled upon wagons; exquisite works of art, once the pride of Athens, 
Corinth, or the splendid cities of the east, were shivered in pieces; 
and vases of the most beautiful workmanship were divided by the 
stroke of the battle-ax and distributed among the rapacious soldiers. 

Questions. — 73. Give an account of the invasions of Alaric. What revolution was pro 
duced in Koine? Who was selected for the palace of Augustus? li. When weary of 
Attalus, where did Alaric send him ? Describe the plundering of the city that followed. 



4.D. 415.J BARBARIC INVASIONS. 431 

75. The Goths evacuated the city on the sixth day. At the head 
of an army encumbered with rich and weighty spoils, Alaric advanced 
along the Appian w r ay to the southern point of Italy. There the fer- 
tile island of Sicily attracted his attention, an/1 his active mind imme- 
diately formed the design of preparing a fleet which should transport 
his followers across the narrow strait of Messina, and waft them to 
the shores of Africa. The winds and waves, more potent than the 
Roman arms, sunk or scattered his ill -constructed galleys; and death, 
the conqueror of kings, soon after fixed the fatal term of his conquests. 
His soldiers, with true barbaric grief, turned the course of the little 
river Busentinus, and constructed his splendid sepulchre in its ancient 
bed ; the waters were then restored to their natural channel ; and 
thus have they flowed, age after age, over the tomb of Alaric the 
Visigoth. 

76. Adolphus, the brother-in-law of Alaric, succeeded to the sove- 
reignty of the Gothic people. In the sack of Rome they had taken 
captive the beautiful Placidia, daughter of Theodosius; and the noble 
barbarian, won by her charms, now offered peace to Honorius on con- 
dition of receiving the hand of his sister in marriage. The fair Placi- 
dia consented, and the union was consummated before the Goths left 
Italy. The bride, adorned like an empress, was placed upon a throne 
of state, while her husband, clothed in the Roman toga, occupied a 
less elevated seat at her side. Fifty beautiful slaves, dressed in silken 
robes, presented her with fifty basins of gold, and fifty basins of 
gems ; yet even this extraordinary nuptial gift formed but a small part 
of the rare and magnificent spoils of her country. 

77. Adolphus retired with his bride and his people into Gaul, and 
thence into Spain, where he founded the kingdom of the Visigoths. In 
the year 415, Adolphus was assassinated by one of his domestics, and 
Wallia, his successor to the sovereignty of the Gothic nation, led his 
followers in the track of Alaric to the southern shore of Italy. The 
tempestuous sea again prevented the projected expedition to Africa ; 
and Constantius, the brave general of Honorius, forced the barbarians 
to conclude a peace, and exchange the unfortunate Placidia for 6,000 
measures of wheat. The hand of the widow of Adolphus was the 

Questions.— 75. "When did the Goths evacuate Rome? What did Alaric do? How did 
he lose his life? Where was he buried? 76. Who succeeded to the sovereignty of the 
Goths? How was peace consummated between Rome and Adolphus? Describe the cere- 
monious splendor of the marriage. 77. What kingdom did Adolphus found? What was 
the fate of Adolphus? Who was his successor? How was the expedition to Africa pre- 
vented? Who effected a peace for Honorius? What became of the unfortunate Placidia? 
What was the reward of Constantius? 



4-32 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. D. 433 

reward of Constantius, and the care of her children, Valentinian and 
Honoria, thenceforth occupied her attention. 

78. The Vandals. — At the very time that the Goths were engaged in 
the plunder of Italy, a similar devastation was going on in Spain. Tho 
Suevi, the Vandals, and the Alani forced the passes of the Pyrenees, 
establishing themselves in the most fertile portions of that country, 
and enslaved the original inhabitants. In the year 429, Genseric led 
the Vandals across the strait of Gibraltar, and, re-enforcing his army 
by enlisting the Moors, proceeded to wrest from the Romans all their 
possessions in Africa. On a sudden, the seven fruitful provinces from 
Tangier to Tripoli were overwhelmed by the bloody tide of war. 
During eight years, the Vandals spread themselves like locusts over 
the land, and completed their conquests by once more destroying Car- 
thage, the capital of the African world. About the same time, the 
Goths, the Burgundians, and the Franks obtained a permanent seat in 
the provinces of Gaul. 

79. As early as the time of Cicero, it was the opinion of the augurs 
that the twelve vultures which Romulus had seen represented the 
twelve centuries assigned for the fatal period of his city. Now, when 
the loss of the provinces beyond the Alps impaired the glory and 
greatness of Rome ; when her internal prosperity was irretrievably 
destroyed by the separation of Africa; and when the twelfth century, 
clouded with disgrace and misfortune, was almost elapsed, the people 
remembered the fearful omen, and looked forward with gloomy fore- 
boding to the accomplishment of the prophecy. After a disgraceful 
reign of twenty-eight years, Honorius died of a dropsy, and the scepter 
of the Western Empire descended to the feeble hands of Valentinian 
III., the infant son of Constantius; Placidia being declared regent. 
At a suitable age, he was married to his cousin, Eudoxia; but his 
mother still retained her influence, and ruled in his name for twenty- 
five years. 

80. Attila. — The Goths and the Vandals, from whom the imperial 
city suffered so much, fled before the Huns; but in the year 433 the 
Huns themselves marched southward to the Danube, and under Attila. 
surnamed the "Scourge of God," became the terror of the world, 
From the banks of the Volga to the banks of the Rhine, the savage 

Questions.— 73. What was going on in Spain at that time? Who forced the passes of the 
Pyrenees? What was their object? Who led the Vandals across the strait of Gibraltar .' 
What possessions did they wrest from the Romans ? What further conquests attended them ? 
79. What became a proverb in the time of Cicero? To what were the people of Koine then 
looking? What was the condition of Rome after the death of Honorius? 80. By whom 
were the Goths and Vandals routed ? What mention is next made of the Huns? Describe 
the ravages of the chieftain Attila 



k. r. 453.] THE INVASION OP ATTILA. 433 

chieftain extended his fearful sway, and, disdaining to dismount from 
his horse, dictated to embassadors from Constantinople the terms of a 
peace, each condition of which was an insult to the Roman name. 
The treaty was soon broken, and the whole breadth of Europe was 
invaded, occupied, and desolated by the myriads of barbarians whom 
Attila led into the field. In the year 452 he passed the Alps, subdued 
[taly, and took Aquileia, Milan, and Pavia. 

81. It is a saying worthy of the ferocious pride of the Hunnic chief, 
that the grass never grew on the spot where his horse had trod. Yet 
this savage destroyer undesignedly laid the foundation of a city, which 
for a long time sheltered and nourished the sciences and arts. Before 
this irruption, fifty Venetian cities clustered around Aquileia, and, sup- 
ported by commerce and manufactures, gradually accumulated extra- 
ordinary wealth. The peaceful inhabitants of these cities, scattered 
like wild-fowl before the storm of war, found a safe but obscure rest- 
ing-place in the neighboring islands ; and there, nestling as it were 
upon the bosom of the waves, where the swell of the Adriatic feebly 
imitates the tides of the ocean, they reared the amphibious city of 
Venice, which, in the middle ages, was the great commercial emporium 
of Europe. 

82. Valentinian fled from Ravenna to Rome, and his ministers pur- 
chased the safety of Italy by paying to the barbarian the immense 
dowry of the princess Honoria, and consenting to add the grand- 
daughter of Theodosius to the list of his innumerable wives, within a 
stipulated time. The king of the Huns then drew off his myriads, and 
retired to his wooden palace beyond the Danube, where death found 
him in the arms of sleep, and silenced forever his claims upon the 
empire of Rome. His remains were inclosed in three coffins, of gold, 
of silver, and of iron; and in the darkness of night committed to the 
earth, together with the spoils of nations and the bodies of slaughtered 
captives. 

83. a. d. 453. The death of Attila broke the power of the Huns, 
but two years later Valentinian was assassinated by Maximus, a senator 
of illustrious birth, who was proclaimed emperor by the senate and 
people, while the bleeding corpse of his rightful sovereign lay at his 
feet. This was the last day of his happiness; his hours were disturbed 
by remorse or terror; and his throne was shaken by the seditions of 



Questions.' — 81. In what manner did he give existence to Venice? 82. To what place di<* 
Valentinian flee? How was the safety of Italy purchased? What is said of the death of 
Attila? What disposition was made of his remains? 83. What became of Valentinian? 
Who then was proclaimed emperor? How were the hours of the new emperor disturbed? 
19 



431 EMPlRi? OF ROME. [a. d. 4£>5. 

the soldiers, the people, and the confederate barbarians. Endoxia, 
the widow of Valentinian, had been compelled to violate her mourn- 
ing to appear as the bride of the usurper. From the east she could 
expect no assistance; the scepter of Constantinople was in the hands 
of a stranger; and, despairing of aid from her own people, 9he turned 
her eyes to Africa, and begged the aid of Genseric, the king of the 
Vandals. The royal barbarian had already a powerful fleet in the 
ports of the Mediterranean; and six hundred years after the total 
defeat of the naval power of Carthage by the Romans, the ships of 
Genseric, manned by a motley crew of Vandals, Moors, and Africans, 
issued from the harbors of the city of Dido, to take vengeance upon 
Imperial Rome. 

84. When the Vandals disembarked at Ostia, Maximus prepared for 
instant flight ; but no sooner did he appear in the streets than the 
infuriated populace assaulted him with a shower of stones, and his 
mangled body at length found its grave in the Tiber. Rome and its 
inhabitants were delivered to the violence of the Vandals and Moors. 
The pillage- lasted fourteen days and nights. The spoils of pagan tem- 
ples and of Christian churches, the holy instruments of Jewish wor- 
ship which had been displayed in the triumph of Titus, the gilded roof 
of the capitol (which cost not less than $10,000,000), the imperial 
ornaments of the palace, and the magnificent furniture of private 
dwellings, were carefully collected and laboriously removed to the fleet. 

85. Eudoxia herself, who advanced to meet her deliverer, was 
rudely stripped of her jewels, and with her two daughters, the only 
surviving remains of the great Theodosius, was compelled, as a captive, 
to follow the haughty Vandal to Africa. Her elder daughter, Eudo- 
cia, became the reluctant bride of Hunneric, the eldest son of Gense- 
ric ; and the queen, with her younger daughter, after several years of 
captivity, was honorably restored to the eastern emperor. The shores 
of Italy, Spain, and Greece were afflicted by the incessant depreda- 
tions of the Vandal pirates. In the spring of each year they sailed 
from the ports of Carthage, and Genseric, remarking that "the winds 
would transport them to the guilty coasts, whose inhabitants had 
provoked divine justice," suffered his ships to float at ease upon the 
bosom of the Mediterranean, till the sight of some wealthy city 
tempted him to land. He continued thus the tyrant of the sea to an 

Questions.— 83. What was Eudoxia compelled to do ? What afterward did she do . Was 
the successful? 84. At what place in Italy did the Vandals disembark? Relate \he fate 
of Maximus. What then followed? What is said of the pillage and spoils? 85. What 
treatment did Eudoxia receive? What is related of the depredations of the Vandal 
pirates? 



a. D. 476.] THE EMPIRE ENDED. 4^5 

advanced age, and lived to witness the final extinction of the Empire 
of the West. 

86. In the space of twenty years after the death of Valentinian, 
nine emperors successively disappeared from the Roman stage, and the 
last would be least entitled to the notice of posterity, if his reign, 
which was marked by the fall of the Western Empire, did not leave a 
memorable era in the history of mankind. In these times of confusion 
and discord, when Italy (now all that was left to Rome) was alter- 
nately defended and ravaged by the barbarians who ranged themselves 
under the banners of the sinking empire, Orestes, a Pannonian chief, 
having gained the favor of the troops, invested his son, Romulus 
Augustus * with the imperial purple, and seated him upon the throne 
of the Caesars. The youth who was thus made the instrument of his 
father's ambition was distinguished only by his beauty and misfor- 
tunes. The troops who had assisted in his elevation claimed one- 
third of the lands of Italy as their reward ; this insolent demand was 
denied, and Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, roused them to revolt from 
their inoffensive monarch. 

87. Pavia was taken by storm ; Orestes executed, and the helpless 
Augustus, who could no longer command the respect, was reduced to 
implore the clemency of Odoacer. The barbarian spared his life, and 
the " last emperor of Rome," having signed his abdication in due form, 
was permitted to retire to the splendid castle of Lucullus, upon the 
shores of Campania. Odoacer, despising the empty title of Augustus 
and Caasar, caused himself to be proclaimed King of Italy ; and the 
senate, mindful of their ancient dignity in the last hour of their 
authority, addressed an epistle to the eastern emperor, solemnly dis- 
claiming the necessity or even the wish of continuing any longer the 
imperial succession in Italy, and consenting to receive the administra- 
tion of justice from the hand of Odoacer. 

Thus ended the empire of Rome, a. d. 476, 1,229 years after the 
foundation of the city by Romulus. 

* Romulus was corrupted into Momyllm by the Greeks, and Augustus changed by the 
Latins into the contemptible diminutive, Augustulus, "little Augustus." 

Questions. — 86, 87. What further is stated of the final overthrow of the Roman empire ? 
By what means did Odoacer obtain power? In what year did the empire of Rome end? 
How many years had it existed ? 



436 ROME. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGH 

1. Give an account of the building of Rome 314, 315 

2. What can yon state of the inhabitants ? 315, 316 

3. Of the religion of the Romans? 316, 317 

4. Of marriages among the Romans ? 317 

5. Of the government of Rome ? 317, 318 

6. How were trials among the Romans conducted ? 318 

7. What can you state of the occupations of the Romans ? 319 

8. Of their preparations for battle ? 319 

9. Of their funeral ceremonies ? 319, 320 

10. Of the fabulous history of Rome ? 320 

11. Give the early history of Rome 320, 321, 322 

12. The history as connected with that of the Sabines 322-324 

13. Now give the biography of Romulus 314-324 

14. Give the biography of Numa Pompilius 324, 325 

15. Give an account of the reign of Tullius Hostilius 325, 326 

16. Of the reign of Ancus Martius 326, 327 

17. Of the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus 327, 328 

18. Of the reign of Servius Tullius 328, 329 

19. Of the reign* of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus 329-331 

20. What change in the government then took place? 331, 332 

21. What efforts did Tarquin make to recover power? 332-334 

22. How was the conspiracy attempt frustrated? 33.2, 333 

23. How, the one to capture Rome by siege? 333 

24. The one in which twenty-four towns were confederated? 334 

25. Give the origin of the " veto " power 335 

26. Why was Coriolanus banished from Rome ? 335 

27. What then was his plan for vengeance ? 335 

28. Give the particulars of his movements 336 

29. How, at last, was he influenced in favor of Rome ? 336, 337 

30. What further can you state of Coriolanus ? 337 

3 1. Give the story of Cincinnatus. 337, 338 

32. Of Siccius Dentatus 338, 339 

33. What change then took place in the government of Rome? 339 

34. Relate the story of Virginia 339-341 

35. What changes, proposed by the tribunes, were adopted? 342 

36. What other changes afterward occurred ? 342, 343 

37. Give an account of the taking of Veii 343 

38. Of Camillus till he departed from Rome 343, 344 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 437 

I AGE 

39. Who was Brennus ? 344 

40. Why did Brennus attack Rome ? 344, 345 

41. Give an account of his successes 345, 346 

42. Give an account of the success of Camillus 346 

43. Of the success of Pontius Cominius 346, 347 

44. Of the success of Manlius 347, 348 

45. What agreement was made between the Romans and Gauls?. . . 348 

46. Why was it not carried out 348 

47. What further is stated of the Gauls ? 348, 349 

48. What arguments Were used against rebuilding Rome ? 349 

49. Why was it determined to rebuild the city ? 349 

50. Give an account of Manlius 347-350 

51. Of Licinius Stolo 350, 351 

52. Who were the Samnites ? 351 

53. With whom were they engaged in war ? 351, 352 

54. Who was Manlius Torquatus ? 352 

55. Relate the story of Titus Manlius 352 

56. Give an account of the battle 352, 353 

57. How did Pyrrhus get involved in the Roman war ? 353 

58. Give an account of the movements of Pyrrhus 353, 354 

59. Of his first victory over the Romans 354 

60. Of his conduct after the battle 354 

61. Of his failure to negotiate a peace 354-356 

62. State how Fabricius gained his point 356 

63. Give an account of Pyrrhus's second victory 356 

64. What further can you state of Fabricius ? 356, 357 

65. Give an account of Pyrrhus's defeat 357 

66. What movements did he afterward make ?. 357 

67. Give the early history of Carthage 358 

68. What was the origin of the first Punic war? 358 

69. How were the Romans enabled to cope with Carthage on the sea ? 358 

70. Give an account of their first success on the sea 359 

71. What successes did they have in Africa ? 359 

72. What were the successes of Regulus? 359, 360 

73. What misfortunes befell him ? 360, 361 

74. What failure next awaited the Romans ? 361 

75. What success at last did they have ? 362 

76. How did the Romans use the peace that followed? 362 

77. In what war were they next engaged ? 362 

78. Who was Viridomarus ? 362 

79. What challenge did he put forth ? 362 

80. State what followed , 362, 363 

81. What time elapsed between the first and second Punic wars — 363 



438 ROME. 

PAGH 

82. Who was Hannibal ? 363 

83. Give the origin of the second Punic war 363, 364 

84. Of Hannibal's success in Spain 364 

85. Of his passage of the Alps 364, 365 

86. Of his first two battles with the Romans 365 

87. Of Hannibal's suosequent movements 365, 366 

88. Of the battle of Thrasymenus 366 

85. Of Fabius and his policy 366-370 

90. Of Varro and his defeat at Cannae 368 

91. What were the consequences of that defeat? 369 

92. What misfortunes attended Hannibal? 370-372 

93. Give an account of the siege of Syracuse 370, 371 

94. What successes did Scipio Africanus gain ? 372 

95. Give an account of the battle of Zama 373 

96. What were the occurrences in Greece ? 373-375 

97. What successes did the Romans gain over Antiochus? 374 

98. Give the account of Scipio Africanus's closing career 374 

99. How did the third Punic war originate ? 375 

100. What misfortunes befell the Carthaginians ? 375 

101. Describe what followed till Carthage was destroyed 376 

L02. What added to the growing importance of Rome ? 376, 377 

103. What is said of Cornelia Gracchus ? 377 

104. Give an account of Tiberius Gracchus 377, 378 

105. Of Caius Gracchus and Flaccus , 378, 379 

106. Of the Jugurthine war 379, 380 

107. Give an account of Caius Marius „ . . . 380, 382 

108. What can you state of the early career of Sylla ? 3S0 

109. How was the Mithridatic war commenced ? 381, 382 

110. Give an account of its progress 381, 382 

111. Of the great victory gained by Scylla in Italy 382, 383 

112. Of his subsequent career of crime 383 

113. Give the closing account of his deeds and death 383, 384 

114. Give some account of Crassus 383-388 

115 What were Lucullus's successes in Asia ? 384 

116. How came Pompey to supersede Lucullus ? 384 

117. Give the closing account of the Mithridatic war ? 384-386 

118. Give an account of Catiline's conspiracy 385, 386 

1 19. Of Pompey's return to Rome 386, 387 

1 20. How was the first triumvirate effected? 387, 388 

121. What division did the triumvirs agree on? 388 

122. What successes did Caesar gain ? 388, 389 

123. What career did Crassus run?. 389 

124. Name the events preceding the passing of the Rubicon 389, 390 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 439 

PAQB 

125. Give the particulars of that event 390 

1 26. What flight and pursuit then followed ? 390 

127. Give an account of Caesar's next success .391 

128. Of the battle fought at Dyracchium 391 

129. Of the next battle, that of Pharsalia 391-393 

130. What further account can you give of Pompey ? 393, 394 

131. Why did Caesar go to Egypt? 395 

1 32. What did he accomplish in Egypt ? 395 

133 What in Africa, west of Egypt? 395, 396 

134. What other successes did Caesar gain ? 396, 397 

135. Give an account of the end of Caesar 397, 398 

136. Describe what followed 398-400 

137. How was the second triumvirate brought about? 400, 401 

138. What were the terms agreed upon by the triumvirs? 400 

139. How was the " proscription " carried out ? 400 

140. State what took place in Greece 400, 401 

141. Give an account of Antony's next movements 401, 402 

142. Of the aims and movements of Octavius 402 

143. What new division of power was made? 402 

144. What became of Pompey and Lepidus? 402 

145. Give the particulars of what followed 402 

146. Of the battle of Actium and its consequences 402, 403 

147. Give the particulars of Octavius's successes 403 

148. What is stated of the reign of Augustus ? 404 

149. Give an account of his family affairs and death 405 

150. What can you state of the reign of Tiberius ? 405 

-151. Of Germanicus and his career ? 405, 406 

152. Of Sejanus and his career? 406 

153. Of the close of Tiberius's reign, and of his death ? 406, 407 

154. Of Caligula, his career and death? 407, 408 

155. Of Claudius, his career and death? 408, 409 

156. Of Nero, his career and death? 409-411 

157. Of Galba, his career and death? 411, 412 

158. Of Otho, his career and death ? 412 

159. Of Vitellius, his career and death? 412 

160. Of Vespasian, and what he and Titus accomplished? 412-415 

161. Of Titus, his career and death? 413-416 

162. Of Domitian, his career and death? 416 

163. Of Trajan, his career and death ? 416, 417 

164. Of Adrian, his reign and death? 417, 418 

165. Of Antoninus, his reign and death? 418, 419 

166. Of Marcus Aurelius, his reign and death? 419 

167. Of Pertinax, his reisn and death ? 420, 421 



440 ROME. 

PAOl 

168. What events followed the death of Pertinax ? 421 

169. What were the events of Servius's reign ? 421, 4-22 

170. What the events during the next eighteen years ? 422 

171. Give an account of the career of Caracalla 422, 423 

172. Of Heliogabalus, his acts and death 423 

173. Give the events during the next eighteen years 424 

174. What is stated in relation to the thirty tyrants ? 425 

175. In relation to Valerian, his acts and death? 424 

176. In relation to Aurelian, his acts and death ? 424, 425 

177. Name the closing events of the century 425 

178. What is stated of the ten persecutions ? 426 

179. Give the particulars of Constantine's accession to power 426, 427 

180. Of his important acts and death 427, 428 

181. Name the events of the next twenty-four years 428 

182. Give the account of Julian and Jovian. 428 

183. Of Valentinian 428, 429 

184. Of Gratian and Theodosius 429 

185. Give the particulars of Alaric's invasion 429, 430 

186. Of his subsequent acts, movements, and death 430, 431 

187. Give the story of Placidia 431, 432 

188. What misfortunes did the Yandals inflict? 432 

189. What other misfortunes befell Rome ? 432 

1 90. What conquests were made by Attila ? 432, 433 

191. Give the account of Maximus 433, 434 

192. Of Eudoxia 433, 434 

193. What did Rome suffer from the Vandals and Moors ? 434 

194. Give the particulars of Genseric's career 434, 435 

195. Give the account of Romulus Augustus 435 

196. Give the account of Odoacer 435 

197. When was the Roman empire brought to an end ? 435 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

•♦• 

B. C. 

Foundation of Rome 753 

Reign of Romulus 753-716 

Numa Pompilius 716-673 

Tullius Hostilius 673-641 

Ancus Martius -------- 640--616 

" Tarquinius Priscus ----..._ 616-578 

" Servius Tullius - 578-534 

" Tarquinius Superbus . - - 584-510 

Establishment of the Republic --..... 509 

Three attempts to restore the Tarquins - - - - 509, 508, 498 

Battle of Lake Regillus 498 

First Secession to the Sacred Mount 494 

Tribunes of the Plebs 494 

Coriolanus banished 488 

Agrarian Law of Cassius 486 

The Publilian Law of Volero 471 

The Decemvirate - - - - 451-449 

Canuleian Law for intermarriage between the two orders - - 445 

Military Tribunes with consular power 444 

Censors first elected 443 

Veii taken 396 

Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls ------ 390 

The Licinian Law — equalization of the two orders - - - 367 

Plautus, Comedies - 254-184 

The First Samnite War 343-341 

The Latin War - - - - 340-338 

The Publilian Laws 339 

The Second Samnite War 326-304 

Defeat of the Romans by the Samnites at the Caudine Forks - 321 

The Third Samnite War -------- 298-290 

The Hortensian Laws — union of the two orders - - - - 281 

The War with Pyrrhus 281-278 

The Conquest of Italy 265 

The First Punic War - 264-241 

The Second Punic War 218-202 

Siege Saguntum - - - 219 

Ennius, Annals, Satires - - 239-169 

Battle of the Ticinus - .... 218 

Trebia - 218 

" Lake Trasimenus 217 

" Cannae - 216 

Syracuse taken by the Romans - - - - . - - 212 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

Battle of Metaurus 207 

Battle of Zama - 202 

The First Macedonian War 214-205 

The Second " " 200-196 

The Gallic War ---------- 200 

The Battle of Cynoscephalse - 197 

Terence, Comedies 195-159 

The Spanish War - 195 

Syrian War - 191-190 

Antiochus defeated at Magnesia - - 190 

Death of Hannibal 183 

The Third Macedonian War - - 171-168 

Battle of Pydna 168 

The Achaean War— Corinth taken 147-146 

Spanish Wars- - 153-133 

The Third Punic War 149-146 

Lucilius, Satires ... 148-103 

Murder of Viriathus --------- 140 

Numantia taken 133 

Death of Attalus — bequeathes his kingdom to the Romans - - 133 

Tiberius Gracchus elected tribune — his death . - - - 133 

Asia made a Roman province - - 129 

Caius Gracchus elected tribune ------- 128 

The proposal to give the franchise to the Italians - - - - 125 

Caius Gracchus tribune a second time 122 

put to death 121 

Death of Micipsa, king of Numidia 118 

Varro, Husbandry, Antiquities - 116-28 

Invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones 113-101 

Jugurthine War - 112-106 

Consulship of Caius Marius -- 107 

Cicero, Orations, Letters, Dialogues 103-43 

Teutones defeated at Aquae Sextise - 102 

Second Servile War in Sicily 103-101 

Caesar, Commentaries - 102-44 

Sixth consulship of Marius - 100 

Lucretius, Poems, " De Rerum Natura " ... - - 95-52 

Drusus proposes to give the franchise to the Italians ... 91 

Social War 90-89 

First Civil War 88-86 

First Mithridatic War 88-84 

Catullus, Miscellaneous Poems - - 87-47 

Seventh Consulship of Marius ------- 86 

Sallust, Histories - 86-34 

Second Mithridatic War - - ------ 83-82 

Second Civil War 83-81 

Sullan Constitution 81-79 

Third Mithridatic War - - ------ 74-63 

War with the Gladiators - - 73-71 

Virgil, Eclogues, Georgics, iEneid 70-19 

Pompey, Consul ---------- 70 

War with the Pirates - - 67 

Horace, Satires, Odes, Epistles - ----'-- 65-8 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION". 

B. C. 

Mitliridates' deatli — Jerusalem taken — Catiline's conspiracy — 

Pontus a Roman province ------- G3 

First triumvirate ---------- 60 

Consulship of Caesar --------- 59 

Livy, Roman History ._. 59-A. D. 17 

Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul 58-51 

Caesar's first invasion of Britain ------- 55 

Crassus defeated and slain by the Parthians - 53 

Second Civil War begins -------- 49 

Battle of Pharsalia — Pompey defeated ----- 48 

The Alexandrine War - 48-47 

Battle of Thapsus - 46 

Battle of Munda — Defeat of the Pompeians - 45 

Assassination of Csesar -- 44 

Ovid, Metamorphoses, Fasti ------ 43-A. D. 17 

Second triumvirate (Octavius, Antony, Lepidus) - - - - 43 

Phaedrus, Fables ---------- 

Battle of Philippi — Death of Brutus and Cassius - 42 

Battle of Actium ----------- 31 

Death of Antony and Cleopatra ------- 30 

A D. 

Reign of Augustus - 31-14 

Roman legions under Varus defeated by the Germans - - 9 

Tiberius, Emperor --------- 14-37 

Persius, Satires ---------- 34-62 

Caligula 37-41 

Claudius, Epigrams ---- 41-54 

Martial, Epigrammatists -------- 43-104 

Tacitus, Annals, History -------- 50-117 

Plutarch, Lives of Famous Men - 46-120 

Nero 54-68 

Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Emperors 68-69 

Vespasian, Emperor --------- 69-79 

Seneca, Pliilos, Letters, Tragedies ------ 65 

Jerusa'em taken 70 

Titus, Emperor 79-81 

Domitian, Emperor - - 81-96 

Prosperity of the Empire - 96 

Nerva, Emperor 96-98 

Trojan " - ------- 98-117 

Hadrian " - 117-138 

Lucian " 120-200 

^alen " - - 130-200 

Antoninus Pius, Emperor 138-161 

Marcus Aurelius, " 161-180 

^ommodus, "-- ------ 180-192 

Pertinax, <...------ 192-193 

^eptimius Severus - 193-211 

?aracalla - 211-217 

Macrinus, Elagabalus, Emperor 217-222 

Alexander Severus, " 222-235 

Maximin, " 235-238 

Philip the Arab, " ------- 244-249 

Decius, " 249-251 



4 CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

A. D. 

Thirty Tyrants 253-259 

Gallierms - - 259-268 

Aurelian 268-275 

Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, taken prisoner 272 

Tacitus, Emperor 275-276 

Probus, " 276-282 

Carus,- " .......... 283-283 

Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors — Gallerius and Constantius, 

"Caesars" ---------- 284-305 

Constantine, sole Emperor - - - - - - - - 324-337 

Christianity the national religion ------- 324 

Council of Nice — Trinity established — Constantinople made the 

capital • - - 325 

Three Sons of Constantine 337-361 

Julian the Apostate, Emperor— Paganism re-established - , - 361-363 

Jovian, Emperor - ... . 363-364 

Valentinian, Emperor — Milan capital— Empire divided — Valius 

reigns at Constantinople 364-375 

Bishop Ulphilas converts the West Goths ----- 364-378 

Valius defeated and slain at Adrianople, by the Goths - - 378 

Theodosius the Great, Emperor 388 

Final Division of the Empire 398 

First invasion of Alaric 402 

Rome sacked by Alaric „ 410 

Kingdom of the Vandals founded in Africa ----- 429-439 

Valentinian the Emperor 425-453 

Defeat of Attila at Chalons ----.--- 451 

Maximus, Emperor — Rome plundered by Gensoric ... 4o5 

Romulus Augustus, last Emperor of the West .... 476 



Odoacer, "King of Italy" 476 

Regaal Period 753-509 

Patricians and Plebeians 509-367 

Conquest of Italy .-------- 343-265 

Foreign Wars 26 tH® 

Internal Dissensions - 133 T§9 

The Empire 30-A.D.476 



INDEX 



RULES FOR PRONUNCIATION. 



Every accented vowel, ending a syllable, has its long sound, as Ca-to, the accent being 
designated by an italic letter. Every accented vowel, not ending a syllable, has its short 
sound, as Man-lius. The diphthongs, ce and 02, are pronounced exactly like our English e ; ei, 
like our i; eu is generally a part of two syllables, as, I-dom-e-ne-us ; e, final, always forms a 
distinct syllable, as, Pe-ne£-o-pe. C and g are hard before a, o, and u ; and soft before e, i, and 
y; before ia, and like terminations, they assume sh, as Ac-ci-us, Ca-dw-ceus; Ch baa 
always the sound of k, as Co/-chis ; M, like other consonants, is silent before n, as Hne-mon ; 
P is silent before s and t, as Psammefichus, Pto/emy. 

The rules for accent will be best expressed by the following verse :— 

" Each monosyllable has stress, of course ; 
Words of two syllables the first enforce : 
A syllable that 's long, and last but one, 
Must have the accent upon that or none; 
But if this syllable be short, the stress 
Must on the last but two its force express." 

The pupils, in writing the biographies of the individuals here mentioned, will read the 
pages specified, and such other authorities as may be found in the School Libraries, being 
careful to designate the time when, and the place where, the person lived. 

In describing & people, let the migrations, settlements, and political changes be carefully 
noted. 

In writing the history of a city, let all the remarkable events of which it was the scene 
become the subject of thought, In chronological order. 

This method will cultivate a taste for reading and a habit of research, at the same time 
that it teaches composition and classification of ideas. 



A-be<2-ne-go 12 

Ab-ra da-tes. . . .48, 46. 47. 48 

A-by-dos 6T, 71, 1ST, 194 

Abys-sin-i-a 16, 417 

Ac-a-de-mus 196, 221 

A-cha?w-e-nes 71, 72 

A-chflB-us 98 

A-cha-i-a 215, 243-287 

A-chiZ-las 394 

A-chiMes 94, 100, 227 

Ac-ti-um 309, 402 

^-cra 413 

Ad-her-bal 379 

Ad-me-tus 155 

A-do^-phus 431 

A-do-nis 418 

-4-dri-an 417,418 

A-dri-an-o-ple 418 

A-dri-aMc 425, 433 

Ag-a-mem -non 243 

Ag-a-ris-te 160 

A-gat/i-o-cles 289, 298 

A-ges-i-ltf -us .... 126, 202-219 

A-ge-si/»-o-lis... 126,209 

4-gis 126, 1S5-2S0 



A-go-ra 150 

Ag-rl-gew-tum 359, 360 

A-gri/>-pa 405 

Ag-rip-pt-na 406, 408 

AZ-a-nc 430, 431 

Al-bi-nus 419-422 

Al-ci-bi-a-des 175-198 

Alc-moeon 113-124 

Al-e-man-ni 424 

Al-ex-an-der 237-270 

AMi-a 345 

A-ma-sis 12, 13, 29-53 

A -me»-o-phis 21 

Am-phic-tv-on 98-3S2- 

Am-phip-o-lis. . .174, 224-274 

Am-phis-sa 234, 235 

Am-phi-tri-te 93 

A-my-it 13 

A-mw-li-us 320,321 

A-myft-tas 73, 208, 223 

An-a-cyw-dar-ax-es 246 

An-ax-agr-o-ras 160 

An-chi-a-lus 246 

Are-cus 325-32S 

An-cy-ra 246 



An-dros 191, 192 

An-ta^-ci-das 82, 207 

An-ti-och 419, 428 

An-ti(7-o-nus 271, 272- 274 

An-tt-o-chus. . .191, 284-374 

An-tij9-a-ter 242, 270-276 

An-to-ni-a 413, 414 

An-to-ni-us 41 S, 419 

Are-to-ny . . . .303-311, 389-402 

A-ny-sis 25 

-4-pis 13,17,55.56,84 

A-poMo US. 122 

A^-pi-us 339-341, 355 

.4-pri-es 13, 29,30,81 

A-pw-li-a 867 

Aq-ui-le-i-a 533 

A-m-bi-a 13, 20,22,46 

A-ras-pes 40, 43, 45 

Ar-rt-tus 278-282 

Ar-ba-ces 9-11,35 

Ar-be-la S4 251-254 

Ar-ca-di-a. . .110-136, 191-241 

Ar-ca-di-n s 88, 429 

Ar-che-la-us 104, 223 

Ar-chi-as 209, 210, 211 



442 



INDEX AND PRONUNCIATION. 



Ar-chi da-mus.127, 159, 170 

Ar-chi-me-des 370 

Ar-e-op-a-gus 120, 160 

Ar-g*-a 104 

Ai-gi-nt*-sae 192,193,198 

Ar-gi-ves 191, 277 

Ar-gce-us 224 

A?--gos 110, 153, 196, 2S3 

Ar-go-lis 89 

Ar-i-dce-us 223, 270-273 

A-ri-ma-ni-us 34 

A-ri-ce-us 77, 78, 79 

Ar-i s-taflF-o ras 62, 63, 124 

A-ris-to-bw-lus 385 

A-ris-to-dc- mus 104 

Ar-is-to-gi- ton 122, 253 

Ar-is-to/n-e -lies.. 110-1 13, 159 

Ar-is-tofi-i-u 5S 

A/Ms-tot-le. .14, 231, 237, 238 
Ar-is-ti-des.128, 132, 143-175 

Ar-me-ni-a 7,395,403 

Ar-ta-b«-nus 70, 71 

Ar-ta-ba-zus 72, 148, 149 

Ar-ta-pher-nes.62, 63, 123-127 

Ar-ta-xeroc-es 71-85, 1 55 

Ar-te-mis-i-a 245 

Ar-sa-ces 74, 292 

Ar-si/*-o-e 289,305 

As-dru-bal 370 

As/i-dod 27 

As-pa-si-a 175 

As-pe»-dus 245 

Ass-hur 7.13,14.35 

As-sy/'-i-a 7-15,26-39 

As-ty-a-ges . 37-40, So 

As-y-chis 25 

At/t-ens 86, 62-4:30 

A*-ta-lus 378,430 

AMi-la 337, 432.433 

At-tos-sa ....56, 57, 64 

A£-ro-pos 93 

Au-gus-tu-lus 430 

Au-gus-tus 310, 399-404 

Au-lotes 297,303.304 

Au-re-lius 419,421 

Au-ro-ra 92 

A-zo-tus 27 

Ba-bel 7,19 

Ba&-v-lon 8-15, 28-59 

Bac-chus 260,306 

Bac-tii-a 8, 72-267 

Brt-go-as S3, 84 

Bi-J-e-sis 9, 10 

Bel-sha3-zar 14. 15, 49 

Bc-lus 247,253 

Ber-e-ni-ce 291, 297-303 

BesBua 254-258 

Bez-e-ta 413 

Bi-thvw-i-a 184, 198 

Ba-o-tia 70, 75. S9-213 

Bo-ie-as 137, 139 

Bos-pho-rus 60, 1S9, 427 

Bras-i-das 173, 174 

Bre»-nus 344-347 

Britain 418, 421, 426 

Bri ta»-m ens 408 

Biun-dtt si-am 390, 402 

Bnc-tus 331-882, 8SS-401 

Bu-cepA a-lus...288, 252, 261 

Bu-sen-t*-nns 431 

Bn-st-ris 20 



By-za?i-ti-um..S0, 81, 153427 

Cad-me-ia 98,209.211 

Cfe-sar 304-312, 3SS-39S 

Cffi-sar (Octavius).... 399-405 

Gai'-ro 19, 24, SI 

Ca-li^-u-la 407416 

Cal-lis-the-nes 13, 259 

Cal-lic-raM-das 192, 193 

Cam-by-ses 30-S5 

Cam-pa-ni-a 369, 374, 435 

Ca-naan 7 

Carc-nae 368 

Cap-i-to-line 814, 323 

Cap-rce-a 412 

Cap-u-a 390 

Car-a-eaMa 422,423 

Car-tb age 53-434 

Cas-i -li-nuni 367 

Ca-si-nura 367 

Cas-san-der 272-275 

C£U!-si-us 389-401 

CaM-line 385 

CW-a-na 177-179,182 

Ca-to 2S5, 375, 389-396 

Ce-dron 413 

Ce-pbren-i-us 24 

Ce-ratt-nus 2S9, 290 

Cer-be-rus 93.95 

Ce-the-gus 386 

Chal-ce-don 188-195, 207 

ChaZ-chis 2S4 

Chal-cieM-ce 63, 20S 

Chal-dc-a 12-29 

Oham-poMion 20,21 

Char-i-d«-mus...225, 242, 247 

Char-i-la-us 104, 105 

Char-mi-on 312 

Cha-ron..93, 95, 210, 211, 320 

Cher-o-ne-a 89. 205-241 

Cher-so-ne-sus 61, 100,127-276 

Clu-os 184, 185, 191 

ChiMiin 301 

Christ 404, 428 

Cliry-sos US 

Cic-e-ro 3S6-400, 432 

Ci-li-ci-a 9,44, 76 

Ci-mon 158-162 

Cin-cin-no-tus 337, 338 

Ci/i-e-as 354, 355, 356 



Ciw-i 



.3-1 



Cir-rha 118, 196-227 

Ci-tha-on 146, 147 

Claw-di-us 408,409 

Cle-ar-chus. . . .75, 76, 78, 201 

Cle-om-bro-tus 126, 209 

Cle-oTn-e-nes 123-2S2 

Gle-on 172-175 

Cle-o-pa-tra 304-401 

Clis-the-nes 123, 160 

Cli-tus 244,258 

Clo-tho 99 

Clv-tem-nes-tra 99-104 

Co-drus 102, 1 09-1 1 4 

CoJ-chis 23, 99,895 

Col-la-tt-nus 330-333 

Col-os-se-um 416 

Com-mo-dus 419 

Co-non 192-20S 

Con-stan-tine 426-428 

Con-stan-ti-no-ple 426-434 

Con-stan-ti-us 425-432 



Cor-cv-ra 155-171 

Cor-inth 70-164 

Co-ri-o-la-nus 335-837 

Cor-ne-lia 302, 377-394 

Co-rce-bus 108 

Cras-sus 3S3-389 

Cre-te 90, 100,105,116 

Cris-sa 117-118 

CriM-as 198-200 

Crc»-sus 14-48, 244 

Cu-na&-a 81,201 

Cu-m-ti-i 326 

Cur-ti-us 351 

Cy-asc-a-res 11, 37-51, 85 

Cy-lon .113,166 

Cyn-o-cep/i-a-le 2S2, 373 

Cy n-o-sar-ges 130, 150 

Cy-re-ni-us 404 

Cy-rus 14, 15, 29, 34-50 

Da-ci-a 417,418 

Da-mas-cus 10 

Dan-iel 12-15,250,275 

Dar-da-nus 100 

Da-r«-us 1 57-64 

Da-n'-us II 73, 74, 185 

Da-ra-usIII 84,243 

Da-tis ...63. 127,130 

Da-vid 12 

De-ci-us 352 

Dej-o-ces 35. 36, 85 

De-los..l49, 161, 163. 168, 201 

Delphi 30,69. SS-160 

Dem-a-ra-tus . .1.68, 125, 126 
De-me-tri us. . . .282, 2S5. 2S6 

De-me tri-us 1 272-276 

De-me-tri -us 11.290. 294, 302 
De-mo.v-the-nes 1.172. 180-1S3 
De-mos-the-nes II.. .225-270 

Den-ta-tus 338, 339 

Deu-ca-li-on 98 

Di-a-na 371 

Dbi-i-us 421 

D*-do 35S, 434 

Di-o-cle-si-an 425, 426 

Di-o^-e-nea 234 

Di-o-do-rus....20. 21, 73, 219 
Di-o-nys-i-us....221, 297,304 

Di-o-me-des 92 

Do-do-na 96,97 

Do-mi-tt-an 416, 420 

Do-ri-ans 102, 159-223 

Do-rus 98,101 

Dm-co 114, 115 

Drw-sus 405 

Du-iMi-us 359 

Dyr-racA-i-um 391 

Ec-ba*-a-na 35, 204, 254 

E-ge-an 58-67, 100-187 

E-gi-na 70, 136-169 

JF-gypt 297 

B-hm 35 

E-la-te-a 235 

E-lc-a-zar 413,414 

^-lis 215, 216 

E-miZ-i-us 368,374, 376 

E-o-li-a 207, 267 

E-o-lus ...94.93 

E-pam-i n-o»-das 21 1-220 

Ep-i-dam-nus 108,164 

EpA-e-sua 23-292 



INDEX AND PRONUNCIATION. 



443 



EpVo-ri... 154, 1SS, 204-2S0 

E-pip/t-a-nea 290-301 

K-],)>-o-lae 180-182 

E-pi-rus 88, 227-857 

E-re-tria 128 

E-sar-hacZ-don 11 

E-thi-o-pi-a 9-26,58-55 

E-toZ-i-an 281-292 

E-trw-ri-a 831-362 

Eu-bt*-a 225, 284 

Eu-cli-des 199 

Eu-do-cia 434 

Eu-dose-i-a 432, 434 

Eu-er-ge-tes 291-30 > 

E w-me-nes 272-274 

Ew-pa-tor .290, 294 

Eu-phra-tes. . . .7-66, 201-247 

Eu-rip-i-des 183, 259 

Eu-ro-tas ...214 

Eu-ry-bi-a-des..l41, 142,143 

Eu-rym-e-don 157-245 

En-rys-the-nes . . 104, 125, 126 

Euxine ( Y ux in) 207 

E-vag-o-ras 195,206 

E-vi\ Mer-o-dach.. .14, 15, 39 

Fr7-bi-us Ca-miZ-lus 343 

F</-bi-us Maa-i-mus 306 

Fa-brZ-ci-us 356, 357 

Kaus-tu-lus 321 

Flac-cus 3T9 

Fla-nim-i-us 2S3, 2S4, 373 

Flo-rus 410 

Franks 424,432 

FuZ-vi-a 306, 807, 402 

GaZ-ba 373, 411,412 

Ga-da-tes 43, 49 

Ga-le-ri-us 425,426 

GaZ-i-lee 412, 415 

Gat-la 429 

Gal-li-e-nus 424 

Gaul 418,422,431,432 

Ga-za 250 

Ge-ne.9-a-reth 415 

Ge»-se-ric 432, 434 

Ge/'-ma-ny 417, 423, 430 

Ger-man-i-cus 405, 406 

Ge-ta 422 



Go-hry-as 43-5S, 73 

Go-mor-rah 35 

Go-na-tus 277 

Gor-di-um 245 

Gor-di-us 245 

Goths 423-432 

Grac-chus 377, 378, 379 

Gra« -i-cus 84, 243, 25S 

Gra-tian 429 

Greece 87 

GryZ-lus 

Gy-lij9-pus 179-184 

Gis-cha-la 413 

Hal-i-car-nas-sus 245 

Ham 7,8, 19 

Ha-miZ-car 363 

Han-ni-bal 292, 863, 374 

llar-mo-dius 122, 253 

lltc-tor 101 

HeZ-en 99, 100 

HeZ-i-con 88, 102 

He-li-o-gao-a-lus 423 



He-li-op-o-lis 21, 23, 250 

HeZ-len 24, 97,98,103 

HeZ-le 99 

HeZ-las 89,215-273 

Hel-les-ponZ 60-191 

He-lot 108-111, 136-173 

Her-a-clZ-dae 102, 280 

Her-a-cli-daj 102, 104 

Her-cu-la-ne-um 415 

Her-cu-les... 28-110, 176-264 

Herod 404 

He-rocZ-o-tus 10-73, 137 

He.s-i-od 90 

Hez-e-kt-ah 10, 11 

Hi-e-ro 358, 370 

Hi-ernp-sal 879 

Hip-par-chus 122, 127 

Hvp-pi-as 62-64, 122-130 

Hip-poc-ra-tos . . 160 

His-ti-«-u8 61,62.63 

HoZ-Jand 418 

Ho-mer 24, 95-105 

Ho-no-ri-a 432,433 

Ho-no-ri-us 429-432 

Huns 429-435 

Hy das-pes 260, 261, 263 

Hyr-ca-ni-an 42, 44. 78 

Hy-per-bo Iub 175 

Hyr-ca-nius 385 

Hys-tas-pes 57, 5S, 71, 72 

I-dom-e-neus 100 

/-las, or IZ-i-um 67, 99 

11-lyr-i-a 88, 224-240 

I«-a-chus 97 

I/i-a-rus 72, 161 

I»-di-a 9-44,251-267 

I/i-dus 8S-58, 61, 260 

I-o-ni-a 9S-206 

Ip/t-i-tus 102, 103 

Ip-sus 274-276, 2j>9, 291 

l«-ra-el .10. 11, 26,27 

/-sis 310 

1-soc-ra-tes 221 

Lj-sus 251, 252 

IZ-a-ly 176-130 

It/t-a-ca 100 

1-tho-me 214 

Ja-iras 325, 362, 404, 415 

Jap/t-eth 7, 97 

Ja-van 7,97 

Jacc-ar-thes 257 

Ju-ba 895, 396 

Jw-dah II), 25, 29 

Ju-de-a 10, 58, 293, 415 

Ju-gur-tha 379, 380 

Jw-lia 38S,3S9 

Jw-li-an 428 

Ju-no 91, 103,278-847 

Ju-pi-ter Am-mon 9-108 

Jw-piter 418 

Je-ho-a-haz 28 

Je-hoi-a-kira 12-28 

Jer-o-bo-ain 

Je-rw-sa-leiu 413, 42S 

Job 44 

John 413, 414 

Jo-nab 9 

Jo-6eph 21 

Jo-se-phus 51,219,414 

Jo-vi-un 428 



La-bor os-oar-chod 14-44 

LacA-e-siB 93 

La-co-ni-a 105-2S4 

Lac-e-de-mon 104-130 

La-gus 298 

Lam-a-chus 175 

Lamjp-sa-cua 194, 195 

La-od-i-ce 291 

Lat/t-y-rus 297, 302, 303 

Len-tu-lus 868, 386 

Le-on-i-das 1 68-125-151 

Le-on-idasII 2S0 

Le-o-tyc/t-i-d as. .125-149, 202 

Le-on-a-tus 237 

Lej?-i-dus 399, 400-402 

Les-bos 184-207, 391, 893 

Le-uc*-ra 89, 213-280 

Li-cm-i-an 350 

Li-0-i-a 407 

Lifl-y 73 

Lu-cre-ti -a 330, 331 

Lu-cuZ-lus 384, 435 

Luavor 21 

Ly&-i-a 22-72 

Lyc-i-a 245-293 

Ly cur-gus 104-121, 190 

Lyd-i-a'. 14,37-267 

Ly-san-der 74, 190-205 

Lys-a»-dra 2S9 

Ly-sim-a-chus...272. 275, 289 
Lr>-cris 136, 216, 274 

Mac-e-do-ni a 71, 131-229 

Ma-cri-nus 428 

Ma-nas-6ch 11 

Man-do-ne 38,39 

Ma/i-li-us 347-859 

Man-ti-ne-a 216-283 

Mar-a-thon 64-202 

Mar-ceZ-lus 862-869 

Mar-do-ni-ns 70-223 

Mar-cus . 419 

Ma-ri-us 380 

Mas-i-nis-sa 375 

Mar-ci-a 419 

Mace-i-mus 433. 434 

Me-di-a . 13-84 

Medes 11,14,33-51 

Meg-a-by-sus 59, 72, 161 

Mejz-a-cles 1 13-166 

Meo/-a-ra.. . . 167, 169, 209, 273 

MeZ-i-tus 200 

Me-lon 210-211 

Mew-phis 17-30, 52-251 

Mew-non .21 

Men-e-la-us 24,99, 100 

Me-nes 17, 19 

Mew-tor 83 

Me/'-eu ry 91 

Me-sao-a-tes 77, 81 

Mes-se-ni-a 109-219 

Me-shach 12 

Mes-o-po-ta-mi-a.267, 291, 3SP 

Me-tho-ne 225-231 

Mi-cij9-sii 279 

Mi-l6-tus 61-75, 124-245 

Mil-ti-a-des 61, 127-1 60 

Mi-ner-va 92-287 

Mi-nos 94, 10£ 

Mtz-ra-im 7, IS 

Mith-ri-do-tes 81, 38( 

Mne-mon 74,201 



444 



INDEX AND PRONUNCIATION. 



Moe-ris 20, 26, 3S7 

Mo-loa-sus 155 

Moors 434 

Mount 8t-on 413, 418 

Mount .4-cra 413 

Mount of Olives 413 

Mount Etna. 41S 

Mu/x-mi-ua .286 

M«-ti-ua 333 

Mvc-a-le, 132, 149, 150 

My-ce-nae 136 

My»-da-ru8 1S7, 188 

Ner-bis 2S8. 284 

JJa-bo-po-las-8M-.il, 15, 28, 38 

Na-hum 38 

Near-chus 264, 2C5. 26S 

Neb-u-chad-nes-zar . . 11-S7 

Nc-bros 118 

Ne-cho 12,28-81.264 

Iser-e-£clis-sar 14, 15 

Nep-tune. . . .92, 103, 149, 287 

Nc-ro 409-411, 412-418 

Ner-va 416 

Nt-ca-tor 290, 291 

Nic-i-as 172-183 

Ni-ger 419, 421,422 

Nim-rod 8, 10 

Nm-e-veh 7-14. 35-48 

Ni-nus 8, 9, 10,247 

Nin-y-as ..9 

No-ah 7, 19 

No-la 495 

No-thus 74 

Nw-bi-a 16, 19,22 

If it-ma 324-826, 349-41 9 

Nit-Hii-tor 320, 321 

Oc-ta-via 306, 307, 402 

Oc-ta-vius 399 

<9-chus 73, 83, 84, 85 

Od-e-na-tus 424 

Od-o-a-cer 435 

O-lym-pi-as. .95-109, 134-273 
Q-lywt-pus . . 88-91, 102-281 
O-lyn-thus . 173-210, 223-282 

O-res-tes 104-4S5 

Or-phe-ua 94 

On-o-ma/'-chus 229 

0/>-pi-as 341 

Os-sa 88,185 

O-si'-iis 16, 17, 19, 25 

Os-ti-a 410, 434 

Os-y-ma/i-dy-as 20, 54 

O-ta-nes 56, 57 

O-tho 409,412 

Ox-y-ar-tes 258 

Pac-ta-lna 48 

Pai-la-diuin 92 

Pal-ea-tine : 12-28; 249-821 

Pal-my-ra 424,425 

Pam-phyM-a 157, 245 

Pan-do-ra 92 

Pan-the-a 43, 46. 4S 

PaTi-the-on 90 

Pan- i-lea 139 

Paph-la-go-ni-an 246 

Pa-ris 24. 99, 100 

Par-nas-sian .88-91. US, 140 
Par-thi a... 292, 3u6, 397, 402 
Par-thi-ana 417-422 



P.vrvs-a-tis 74 

Pa-ros 131 

Pa/--a-lus 171,195, 251 

Par-e-to-ni-um 250 

Par-me-ni-o 231-259 

Pa^-ro-clus 422 

Paw-lus 2S6, 368 

Paw-aa-ni-aa 126-1 55 

Pa-vi-a 483,435 

Pe-lav-gi 97 

Pe-li-on 88, 139 

Pe-lop-i-das 2 10-224 

Pc-lops 98, 99, 101 

Pel-o-pon-ne-siiE 89-159 

Pe-lu-ai-um . . 21-52. 250, 310 

Per-dic-cas 223-275 

Per-i-cles 160-lbS, 228 

Per-ga-mus 378 

Per-sep-o-lis 253, 264, 265 

Per-se-us 286, 374 

Per-sl-ans 417-428 

Per-ti-nax 419, 420, 421 

Pe-tro;-a 386 

Phal-e-rum . . 70, 130 

Pha-ra-oh 19, 25 

Phar-na-ba-ccs 74 

Pha-ros ' 299 

Phar-na-ccs 3S6, 395 

Puar-ne-as 376 

Phar-sa-lia 391,392,395 

Pha-yl-lus 229, 280 

Phe-ni-ci-a 7, 12. 29-61 

Phil-a-doZ-phus 291-298 

Phi-le-mon 298 

Philip ..223-227 

PhWAip-pi 226,400 

Phil-o-me-ter 297, 3t'l 

Phil-o-m^-lus 228,229 

Phi-lo-p<»-men..2S2-2S5, 374 

Phi-lqp-a-ter 290-300 

Pbi-lo-tas 255, 256 

Phli-us 136 

Pho-cis SS, 205, 266 

Pho-ci-on . . . 137-191, 227-230 

Phy-K-daa 210, 211 

Pha-bi-das 209. 227 

Phra-or-tea 36, 85 

Phry (7-i-an 98-246 

Phrya;-us 99 

Phvs-con 297, 301, 302 

Pi-ro>us 150-189 

Pi-sid-i-an 75 

Pi-sis-tra -ti-dae..l21, 123, 160 

Pi-si«-tra-tus 120-127 

P<-so 406 

Pt- thorn 21 

Pla-ckM-a 431,432 

Pla-te-a SS, 89, 129-153 

Plato 198, 220, 221 

Plaw-cus 306 

Plis-tar-chua 126 

Pli«-tbe-nes 99 

Plis-to-nax 145 

Plw-tarcb. ..136, 219. 390-417 

Pltt-to 93-95, 138 

Po-li-or-ce-tes 275 

Pol-lux 99, 259 

PoZ-y-carp 419 

Po 43K 

Po-lyft-i-us 2S5 

Po-lys-.per-chon 272-274 

Pom-pe-ii 415 



Pom-pey 3S4, 838-394 

Pow-pey (Sextus) 402 

Pom-pi/-i-us 378 

Pon-ti-us 346 

Pop-pte-a 409,410 

Por-sen-na 333 

Po-rus 260, 261,263 

Pot-i-dce-a 165-174, 20£ 

Po-tipA-e-ra 21 

Prex-as-pes 55, 56, 57 

Pri-am 100, 101 

Pro-bus 424 

Proctors 318 

Pro-cles 104, 125,126 

Pro-me-the-us 92 

Pro-port-tis 153, 243 

Prop-y-l<B-a 150 

Pro-te-us 24 

Proa;-e-nus 201 

Pryf-a-nes 235 

Psam-ine-ni-tus.SO, 31, 52, 53 
Psam-meM-chus.. .27, 28, 31 

Psaw-mis 29. 31 

Pto£-e-my 271-298 

Ptib-lic-o-la 333, 336 

Pul 9 

Py tf-na 155, 225-273 

Pvr-e-nees 432 

PytA-i-a. . . .118, 124, 183, 135 

Pyr-rhus 276-278, 353-355 

Py-thas'-o-ras 124 

Python 91 

Py-thon-ess 69, 96 

Quaes-tors 318 

Quin-de-cem-vi-ri 316 

Qum-ti-us 2S2, 283, 337 

Qui-ri-tes 819, 323 

Rav-en-na 430, 483 

Ra-ma-aea 21 

Eegr-u-lus 359-362 

Re-ho-bo-ain 25 

Re-mus 321-822 

Rhad-a-man-tbua 94 

Rh«-a SiJ-vi-a 320 

Rhe-gi-um 112,176,214 

Rhine 482 

Rho-di-an....83, 113, 252, 2S2 

Rome ;314 

RoMi-u-lua... 314-349, 427-435 

Rox-a-na...223, 258, 269. 270, 

271, 273, 274 

Rtf-bi-con 390 

Bao-a-cbne 25 

Sa-gufi-tum 363 

Said 20 

SaZ-a-mis 70, 114-146 

Sal-ma-nas-or 10 

Btt-lem 415 

Sa-ma-ri-a 10 

Sam-nt-tea 3t51-35S 

Sa-mos 191, 192,197 

Sa-por 424 

Sar-dan-a-pa-lus.9, 10, 11. 246 

8ar-a-caa 11, 38 

So-ron-ic 142 

Scip-i-o 365,895 

Sey-lax 61 

BcytA-i-a 87-43 t 

Sf-ja-uus J;K> 



INDEX AND PRONUNCIATION, 



44:1 



ge-lew-ci-due 275, 290, 291 

Be-lew-cus 272-303 

Sel-eu-cz-a 422 

So-mir-a-rnis 8, 9, 13, 424 

Se/fc-e-ca 410 

Seii-na-che-rib 10,11, 26 

Sep-tim-i-us 394 

8e-ra-pis 422 

Ser-vi-us 328, 329 

Se-sos-tris 21, 22, 23 

Se«-t08 194 

Se-ve-rua 419, 421, 422 

Sea-tus 330 

Sha-drach 12 

Shem 7, 35 

Shi-shak 25 

Sic-il-y 418,431 

Si-don ..29, 24S, 249 

Sic-y-on 89, 97, 27S, 807 

Sic-ei-us 338 

Si-lo-am 413 

Si-mon 413,415 

Si-on 413 

Sis-y-gam-bis 255, 269 

Smer-dis. . . .55, 56, 57, 58, 85 

8oc-ra-tes 79, 175, 193-221 

Botf-oin 30 

Sog-di-a- na 73, 85, 254-258 

SoZ-o-mon 12, 25, 414 

So -Ion 30,199,220,339 

Soph-ro-nis-cus 200 

Spain 94, 178, 363-432 

Bpar-ta 64-123 

Spho-dri-as 212 

Spi-tam-e-nes 258 

Sta-pi-ra 237 

Sta-ti-ra 1 75, 81, 82 

Sta-tt-ra II 265, 269, 271 

Sti-i/-nion 71, 149 

Sw-sa 267 

Sw-ni-um 70 

Su-si-a-na 43, 44,292 

SyMa 3S0, 422 

Syr-a-cuse 358 

Syr-i-a 10-424 

Tac-i-tus 73, 415-425 

Ta»-a-quil 327-329 



Tan-gier 432 

Ta»-ta-luB 99 

Tar-quin 1 325-827 

Ta^-quin II 328-839 

Ta-re/i-tum 857, 358, 370 

Tar-Bus 246, 305, 401 

Tar-ta-rus 90 

Ta-ti-us 323,324 

Ta-ygr-e-tus 158 

Te-ge-ans 149 

TeMus 119 

Tem-pe 88, 135 

Ter-mi-nus 325 

Thaj9-sa-cus 251 

Thap-sns 395 

The&a-is 19 

The-bes 19-209 

The-mis-to-cles 70-188 

The-o-do-si-us 426-434 

Ther-a???-e-nes 193-19S 

Ther-tno^-y-lae. 68-98,126-205 

The-se-us 95 

Thes-pi-ans 136, 138, 241 

Thes-sa-ly 70-98, 100-217 

Thes-sa-lo-ni-ca 271-275 

Thrace 289 

Thra-ci-ans 28-230 

Thras-y-bw-lus 192-207 

Thras-y-me-nus 306 

Thym-bria 44-45 

Thu-cyd-i-des 122-183 

Ti-ber 423-434 

Ti-be-ri-ua 405-407 

Ti-ciw-i-um 872 

Ti-gra-nes 384 

Tigris 8, 38,267,417 

Ti-man-dra 198 

Tis-sa-pher-nes74-S2, 184-202 

Tir-i-ba-zus . . . , 207, 20S 

Ti-thraus-tes 205 

Ti-tus 282-434 

To-ro-ne 209, 224 

Tra-jan 417,418,430 

Tri^o-li 432 

Tro-pho-ni-us 96 

Troy 92-101,243-343 

TuMia... 329 

TuMi-us,..., 325, 32$ 



TuHns 835-831 

Tyn-da-rus 99, 100 

Ty-re 12, 53, 61, 24* -358 

U-cho-re-us 20 

U-lys-ses % 92, 94,100 

Va-le-ri-an 424 

Va-lc-ri-us 331, 332, 883 

Va-lens 42? 

Van-dais 419, 430-484 

Var-ro 368 

Vo-i-ans 824, 883, 348 

Ve-i-i 343-349 

Ve-nus 24, 92, 95 

Vew-ice 433 

Ves-pa-si-an 412-415 

Ve-sM-vi-us 415 

Ve-tM-ri-a 336 

Vi-en-na 419 

Vir-gi?i-i-a 840, 341 

Vir-gin-i-ua 340 

Vi-teMi-us 411,412, 415 

VoJ-sci-i 330-338 

VuZ-can 26, 27, 92 

Wallia 431 

Xan-thip-pns....l31, 149-160 

Xan-tip-pe 200 

Xera-esI 64,71,131 

Xeras-es II 73 

Xen-o-phon... 48-81, 198-218 
Xw-ther 98 

York 422,426 

Za-cyn-thus 172 

Za-ma 873 

Zan-cle 112 

Zech-a-ri-ah 58 

Zed-e-ki-ah 12, 29 

Ze-no-bi-a 424,425 

Zep/t-y-rus 92 

Z«-rah 251 

Zo»-y-rus. 59, 72 

Zor-o-as-ter 32, 84 

Zo-ro-ba-bfcl 61 



ANDERSON'S SCHOOL HISTORIES. 



PIIACTICAL BOOKS BY A PRACTICAL TEACHER. 



A Grammar-School History of the United States. 

By John J. Anderson, A.M., late Principal of Grammar School No. 
31, New York City; Author of a Manual of General Ilistory, A Picto- 
rial School History of the Unitec 1 States, etc., etc. Illustrated with 
more than 40 Maps. lGmo. 258 pages. 

Characteristic Features.— 1. The narrative is written with great clearness and 
conciseness, and is brought down to the present time. 2. Unimportant matters arc en- 
tirely omitted, or only incidentally alluded to. 3. The history and the geography are 
taught together. 4. The book is fully supplied with Maps, and the location of every 
place mentioned is accurately shown. 5. All the proper names are accurately pronounced 
iu connection with the names as they occur, b. The plan affords frequent and systematic 
reviews by topics. 7. Two entirely different sets of questions run through the book. 
8. It contains the Constitution of the United States, with full explanations and class- 
exercises. 9. It contains Washington's Farewell Address. 10. It contains, at the close 
of the book, a complete resume of the whole history, arranged for topical study and 
recitation. 11. It contains but 260 pa-,'cs. 12. It is sold at a moderate price. 

The publishers believe that teac/ie'S who are tired of the curnbersome histories of our 
country now largely in use, and desire a book with which they can produce satisfactory 
results, will find that this work will exactly meet their wants. 






Department or Public Instruction, 

Superintendent's Office, City of New York. 

" I have carefully examined Anderson's Histories, adopted by the Board of Education, 
and used in the Public Schools of this city, and cheerfully commend them to the favorable 
regard of teachers and School officers, as well adapted to the purposes of instruction in 
this branch of study, and as excellent and comprehensive compendiums of the leading 
events of history." S. S. RANDALL, Sup't of Schools. 

"Anderson's Histories have been in use in the Grammar Schools of this city from the 
date of their publication, and, as far as I know, have given the highest degree of satisfac- 
tion. They are written in a clear, concise style, are unusually accurate, and abound in 
exercises which only a practical teacher could have constructed, and which make them 
invaluable Class Manuals. They can scarcely fail to prove acceptable wherever practi- 
cally tried." HENRY KIDDLE, Ass't Sup't of Schools. 

From Fifty-seven Principals of Orammar Schools in tlve City of New York. 
" We are using Anderson's Histories in our schools with complete success. For class- 
room instruction they are, we believe, superior to any other works on the subject with 
which we are acquainted." s 

Department of Public Instruction, 

Superintendent's OJlye, Brooklyn. 
"This is to certify that I am well acquainted with Anderson's Histories, they having 
been in the Public Schools of this city during the last three years. After having seen a 
variety of works on the subject tried here, I am confident that Anderson's are decidedly 
the best for class-room instruction. They give the teacher just the aid he needs to 
produce satisfactory results, and I therefore g.ve them my unqualified recommendation." 
1 J. W. BULKLEY, Sup't of Sclwols. 

" Mr. Anderson has, I think, found the golden mean in nearly every feature that should 
characterize a judicious school history." 

JAMES CRUIKSHANK, Ass't Sup't of Schools. 

From the Principals of the Orammar Schools in the City of Brooklyn. 

"It gives us pleasure, after using Anderson's Histories in our schools during the last 

two years, to say that we like them. The plan of instruction, combining the geography 

1 with the chronology of the narrative, is one which gives the books a decided superiority 

ov<*r the works of other authors on the subject. They have our hearty commendation." 



Published by CLAKK & MAYNARD, New York. 



ANDERSON'S SCHOOL HISTORIES. 



Anderson's Pictorial School History of the United Staccs. 

By JonN J. Anderson, A. M., Late Principal of Grammar School 
No. 31, New York City; Author of a Grammar School and other 
Histories of the United States, and of a Manual of General History. 
Beautifully illustrated with about two hundred maps, portraits, vignettes, 
etc. With an appendix containing the Constitution of the United 
States, with questions and explanations, and the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. 12mo. 400 pages. 

The distinctive features of thiB work are :— 1st. A system of maps, with map questions 
and references, combining the geography with the chronology, thus teaching by the eye 
as well as the ear, and consequently making the impression upon the memory more last- 
ing. 2d. A second set of questions differing entirely from the first. These, by associat- 
ing facts belonging to the same class or train of events, require answers of a topical 
character, and thus compel the student to review his lessons with thoughtfulness. 



From the lion. H. H. Van Dyck, former Superintendent of Public Instruction for the 
State of New York. 
"The books comprising Anderson's Series of School Ilistories have been in my pos- 
session during the last six months. I have examined them with considerable care, and 
find them works of decided merit. There is a directness, clearness, and conciseness in 
the statements, and an admirable method connected with the chronological and geogra- 
phical features of the narrative, that commend them to my judgment. To the instructor 
who aims at thoroughness iu the knowledge imparted to his pupils of our country's 
history, these books are certainly invaluable. I recommend them without reservation." 

From C. B. Parsons, D. D., LL.O., Chairman of Committee of Examination and Control 
of Public Schools, Louisville, Ky. 
" I have carefully examined the l Pictorial History of the United States,' by John J. 
Anderson, and unhesitatingly pronounce it the best of its kind that has fallen under my 
observation. Its remarkable" comprehensibility, so concisely given, " multum in parvo" 
with its excellent arrangement of adaptation to the purposes of instruction, cannot fail 
to recommend it to general use. I most cordially approve of its introduction into our 
schools." 

From Rev. J. M. Anderson, Principal of Ohio Female College, College Hill, Ohio. 

"The book stands well the most careful scrutiny. I am particularly pleased with the 
fairness of its statements as to the results of battles, etc. The history of our country is 
rich enough in great deeds to warrant the historian in telling the whole truth, and 
nothing but the truth, as to her reverses and misfortunes. Without truth, history is a 
delusion and a snare. In point of method, clearness, and succinctness of narration, 
also, I regard this book as incomparably the best manual of the kind that has appeared. 
None but a practical and experienced teacher could have produced such a model class- 
book. We shall lose no time in introducing it into this Institute." 

From Miss Jane A. Bartholomew, the well-knmvn teacher of History in the Connecticut 
State Normal School. 
" In respect to symmetry of plan, proportionate arrangement of matter, correctness, 
clearness, and conciseness of statement, and in variety of explanatory information, it is 
superior to any other text-book in United States history used here. The seals of the 
States and miniature maps are valuable additions to the book ; while the charts and 
questions for review, condensing gradually, as they do, its whole contents, meet a want 
which many teachers have neither the means nor ability to supply." 



PUB LISHED BY 

NEW YORK. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



018 



